Media PAK: SuperPak Software Bundle MPB-03/1/Media PAK SuperPak Software Bundle MBP-03-1.iso/data/hist.dat

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AA, popular shorthand for 
ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS, a
 mutual-support group founded in the United States
 in 1935.

AAA, the initials of the 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT

 ADMINSTRATION, by which this 
NEW DEAL Federal
 agency of the 1930s was best known.

Aachen, Battle of (October 20, 1944), the first
 large German city to be taken by Allied forces in
 World War II; it fell to American troops on October
 20 as they pierced the 
SIEGFRIED LINE.

Abadan Theater fire (August 19, 1978), a fire in an
 Iranian movie theater set by Shiite fundamentalist
 arsonists, killing 350-400 people; the
 gasoline-induced fire spread so quickly that most
 of those inside died from smoke and in the
 accompanying panic.

Abbott, Grace (1878-1939), U.S. social worker,
 writer, teacher, and social reformer, who was
 especially concerned with questions of legal and
 social justice for the flood of immigants who
 arrived in the United States early in the 20th
 century. She was director of the Chicago-based
 Immigrants' Protective League (1908-1917) and
 active with Jane 
ADDAMS in Chicago's 
HULL HOUSE

 during the same period; she worked with the U.S.
 Children's Bureau during and after World War I and
 as its director 1921-24.

ABC (
Atanasoff-
Berry 
Computer), world's first
 fully electronic 
COMPUTER, conceived 1937-38 and
 built 1939-42 by U.S. physicist John Vincent
 
ATANASOFF, assisted by Clifford E. Berry. Unknown
 for 25 years, the ABC came to public attention
 during a 1967 lawsuit over royalties paid to the
 creators of 
ENIAC, long regarded as the first
 American computer. In 1973 a U.S. federal judge
 voided the ENIAC patent, concluding that
 Atanasoff's work had contributed significantly to
 its development, in effect affirming that the ABC
 was the world's first computer. In the ABC,
 Atanasoff pioneered in using electron tubes as
 on-off switches, employing a binary system for
 mathematical calculations. He also set the pattern
 of separating the computer's memory from the area
 in which computations are carried out, and many of
 his other choices are still reflected in modern
 computers.

Abd el-Krim (1892-1963), Moroccan national leader
 in the
 RIF WAR (1921-26), in which his forces
 defeated the Spanish army at the 
BATTLE OF ANUAL
 in 1922, establishing the Rif Republic, but were
 themselves defeated in 1926 by far stronger
 combined French and Spanish armies. He was
 imprisoned by the French on Reunion Island in the
 Indian Ocean and in 1947 was sent to France, but en
 route he escaped to asylum in Cairo. He has been
 regarded by many 20th-century North African and
 other third world revolutionaries as an early hero
 of their own battle against colonialism.

abdication crisis (November 16-December 10, 1936),
 the period between the announcement by Britain's
 King 
EDWARD VIII that he wished to marry American
 divorcee Wallis 
SIMPSON and his abdication.
 Winston 
CHURCHILL supported his right to marry
 Simpson and remain king, but Prime Minister Stanley
 
BALDWIN and the great majority of British and
 Dominion church and state figures did not. Edward
 chose Wallis, and abdicated. They were later made
 duke and duchess of Windsor by his brother, who
 became 
GEORGE VI.

Abdul-Hamid II (1842-1918), Turkish ruler
 (1876-1909), who took the throne professing liberal
 and constitutional sympathies but soon suppressed
 all opposition, developed a powerful secret police,
 and attempted to crush dissident political and
 ethnic national movements throughout the Turkish
 empire. His forces were responsible for the
 Armenian massacres of the late 1870s in
 Constantinople and for the massacres of the
 mid-1890s, in which hundreds of thousands of
 Armenians died, prefiguring the greater massacres
 of the 
ARMENIAN HOLOCAUST. He was forced by the
 
YOUNG TURKS to grant a measure of constitutional
 government to Turkey in 1908 and was removed in
 1909.

Abdullah Ibn Husein (1882-1951), son of 
HUSSEIN

 IBN ALI. After the successful 
ARAB REVOLT during
 World War I, he became Emir of Transjordan, then
 part of British-dominated Palestine. In 1946, he
 became the first king of independent 
TRANSJORDAN,
 participating in the
 FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR of
 1948 and later annexing the
 WEST BANK of the
 Jordan River. He was assassinated on July 20, 1951.


Abdullah, Mohammed ("Lion of Kashmir;" 1905-1982),
 Kashmiri aristocrat, who founded the Kashmir Muslim
 Conference, became a leader of the Indian 
CONGRESS

 PARTY during the struggle for independence, and
 became leader of Kashmir in independent India
 (1948-53). He was ousted and imprisoned by the
 Indian government in 1953, after advocating
 Kashmiri independence, but became chief minister of
 Kashmir again after gaining his freedom in 1973.

Abdul Rahman, Tunku (1903- ), Malaysian lawyer, who
 became president of the United Malays National
 Organization (UMNO) in 1951. He took his party into
 the succeeding Alliance party, a Malay-Chinese
 coalition that became the ruling party of the new
 nation of Malaya in 1957, and became first prime
 minister of his country (1957-63). He was the key
 negotiator of the union of Malaya, Singapore,
 Sabah, and North Borneo into the Federation of
 Malaysia in 1963, becoming first prime minister of
 the Federation of 
MALAYSIA (1963-70); but he
 agreed to the independence of Singapore in 1965 and
 resigned after Chinese-Malay rioting in 1969.

Abdul Razak, Tun (1922-1976), Malaysian lawyer, who
 became a leader of the United Malays National
 Organization (UMNO) in the mid-1950s, deputy prime
 minister, and then second prime minister of
 Malaysia (1970-76), succeeding 
TUNKU ABDUL

 RAHMAN.

Abel, Rudolph Ivanovich (1902-1971), a Soviet
 intelligence colonel who operated an espionage
 organization in the United States 1948-57, was
 captured and sentenced to a 30-year term and then
 exchanged for 
U-2 INCIDENT pilot Francis Gary
 
POWERS in 1962.

Abernathy, Ralph David (1926- ), U.S. Baptist
 minister and associate of Martin Luther 
KING,
 Jr., who became a leader of the 
CIVIL RIGHTS

 MOVEMENT in the mid-1950s. With King he led the


 MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT, was a founder and the
 first secretary-treasurer of the 
SOUTHERN

 CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE (SCLC), and was
 second president of the SCLC (1968-77) after King's
 assassination. As president of the SCLC, he led a
 series of demonstrations and campaigns for Black
 economic and civil rights, including the Poor
 People's Campaign of 1968, which established a
 squatters' settlement-Resurrection City-in
 Washington, D.C.

ABM, popular shorthand for
 ANTIBALLISTIC MISSILE.


A-bomb, popular shorthand for the 
ATOMIC BOMB,
 first developed in the United States in the
 
MANHATTAN PROJECT in 1945.

Abraham Lincoln Battalion, the American battalion
 in the
 INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES during the 
SPANISH

 CIVIL WAR, numbering about 2,800 volunteers, of
 whom an estimated 900 were killed and many others
 injured. The battalion first went into action on
 February 17, 1937, at the Battle of Jarama, near
 Madrid; of 450 men, 120 were killed and 175
 wounded. Most of its surviving members were
 withdrawn with the rest of the International
 Brigades in November 1938.

Abrams, Creighton Williams, Jr. (1914-1974), U.S.
 officer, who saw service in World War II, held
 several substantial army field and staff positions
 during the 1960s, became deputy to General William


 WESTMORELAND in 
VIETNAM in 1967, was U. S.
 commander in Vietnam 1968-72, and was army chief of
 staff 1972-74.

Abscam (Abdul scam), a 1978-79 Washington, D.C.,


 FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION "sting" operation,
 in which FBI agents, posing as wealthy Arab
 businessmen, offered bribes to scores of public
 officials. Ultimately, seven federal legislators
 were indicted; all were tried and convicted,
 although one conviction was later reversed on
 appeal. Senator Harrison A. Williams, Jr., and
 Congressmen John W. Jenrette, Jr., Raymond F.
 Lederer, Michael O. Myers, John M. Murphy, and
 Frank Thompson, Jr., were convicted as a result of
 Abscam.

Abyssinian War, an alternate name for the


 ETHIOPIAN-ITALIAN WAR of the mid-1930s.

accelerator, in physics, a device for speeding up
 charged atomic
 PARTICLES to high velocities and
 energy levels and often forcing collisions among
 them to produce other kinds of subatomic particles;
 a type of machine basic to modern nuclear research
 and particle physics, popularly called an "atom
 smasher." The earliest accelerators were linear,
 starting with the machine built 1929-31 by U.S.
 physicist R. J. van de Graaff, and employed various
 methods of forcing acceleration. Working at the
 University of California at Berkeley, Ernest O.


 LAWRENCE pioneered in building circular
 accelerators, starting with his
 CYCLOTRON
 1930-32. From 1946 more sophisticated accelerators
 were built, including the proton linear accelerator
 designed by Luis W.
 ALVAREZ. Many early
 accelerators were used for decades, notably in
 producing radioactive
 ISOTOPES for medical
 treatment and research. But ever larger and more
 sophisticated machines were built for nuclear
 research, such as the
 CERN accelerator in Geneva,
 built in the early 1970s, and the Super
 Superconducting Collider (SSC), popularly dubbed
 the Desertron, being constructed in the late 1980s
 and planned to be tens of miles across.

Acheson, Dean Gooderham (1893-1971), U.S. lawyer,
 who began his career as a clerk to Supreme Court
 Justice Louis B.
 BRANDEIS in 1920, thereafter
 practicing law, with a brief period of government
 service at the Treasury Department in 1933, until
 becoming an assistant secretary of state in 1941.
 In 1945, he moved up to the post of undersecretary
 of state under George C. 
MARSHALL, in that period
 developing such major early 
COLD WAR initiatives
 as the
 MARSHALL PLAN and the 
TRUMAN DOCTRINE.
 He became secretary of state in the 
TRUMAN
 administration and supported the formation of the
 
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO) in
 1949, U.S. participation in the
 KOREAN WAR, and


 CHIANG KAI-SHEK'S government after it fled to
 Taiwan. He was attacked by Senator Joseph
 
MCCARTHY for his defense of Alger
 HISS and
 other state department personnel who had been
 charged with being Communists or Communist
 sympathizers, and he was also blamed by McCarthy
 and others for not strongly enough supporting
 Chiang in the
 CHINESE CIVIL WAR.

Achille Lauro hijacking (October 1985), the October
 7 seizure of the Italian cruise ship 
ACHILLE

 LAURO, carrying over 400 passengers and crew, by
 four Palestinian terrorists, off the coast of
 Egypt. The hijackers demanded release of
 Palestinian prisoners held by Israel, threatening
 to kill the ship's passengers; they did kill
 disabled American passenger Leon Klinghoffer on
 October 8, afterward throwing his body and
 wheelchair overboard. Syria refused permission to
 land; Egypt, however, promised safe-conduct to the
 terrorists after being assured by the ship's
 captain that no one had been hurt. On October 10,
 U.S. naval aircraft forced the Egyptian airliner
 carrying the hijackers to land in Sicily, an action
 sharply protested by Egypt; Italy took them into
 custody, along with two
 PALESTINE LIBERATION

 ORGANIZATION (PLO) leaders on the airplane, but
 did not arrest the PLO officials.

acid rain, atmospheric water in which industrial
 pollutants released into the air, notably sulfur
 dioxide and nitrogen oxides, form sulfuric and
 nitric acids, which then fall to earth in
 raindrops. The long-term effects of acid rain are
 devastating, such as creating lifeless lakes in
 America's Northeast and killing trees in Germany's
 Black Forest. Despite warnings of the effects of
 such pollution, governments responded slowly to the
 threats, opposed by industry most of the way. Air
 pollutants knowing no borders, acid rain was a
 subject of hot dispute between countries, as
 between the United States and Canada in the 1980s.


ACLU, the initials of the 
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES

 UNION.

acquired immune deficiency syndrome, full name of
 the deadly viral disease known as 
AIDS.

Action Francaise, French rightist, anti-Jewish,
 monarchist, largely Catholic group formed by
 Charles 
MAURRAS in 1899, which from 1908
 published its own newspaper and engaged in street
 violence as well. It was seriously damaged by the
 condemnation of Pope 
PIUS XI in 1926, kept some
 of its strength in the 1930s, collaborated with
 Vichy and the Nazis during World War II, and was
 smashed after the war.

ADA, the initials of 
AMERICANS FOR DEMOCRATIC

 ACTION, the liberal group founded in 1947.

Adair v. United States (1908), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision upholding the "yellow dog"
 contract, an agreement forced on workers by their
 employers, that made union membership grounds for
 discharge.

Adams, Sherman, U.S. presidential aide, former
 governor of New Hampshire, who in 1958 was accused
 of taking gifts, notably a vicuna coat, from his
 friend Bernard Goldfine in return for attempting
 unethically to influence government agency
 proceedings against Goldfine. Adams was strongly
 defended by president Dwight D.
 EISENHOWER and
 exonerated by a congressional committee, but
 ultimately resigned as the public campaign against
 him continued to grow.

Addams, Jane (1860-1935), pioneer U.S. social
 worker, women's rights worker, peace activist, and
 writer, who established Chicago's
 HULL HOUSE in
 1889 and there in the next four decades developed
 many of the approaches and structures central to
 the settlement house movement of the early 20th
 century. She was president of the
 WOMEN'S

 INTERNATIONAL LEAGUE FOR PEACE AND FREEDOM,
 co-recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931, and
 is probably best known for her book Twenty Years at
 Hull House.

Aden, a former British colony; on November 30,
 1967, Aden became part of the new nation of
 SOUTH

 YEMEN, which became the
 YEMEN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC

 (PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF YEMEN) in 1970.


Adenauer, Konrad (1876-1967), German lawyer, who
 became mayor of Cologne (1917-33) and was a leading
 member of the Catholic Center Party before the Nazi
 takeover in 1933. He was removed from office by the
 Nazis and held no office of any kind during the
 Nazi period. Going back into public life after the
 war, he became a leader of the Christian Democratic
 Union, had major responsibility for the drafting of
 a new Basic Law for West Germany in 1948, and
 became first chancellor of the 
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF

 GERMANY, 1949-63. During the period in which he
 was chancellor, West Germany became fully
 independent, joined the
 NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY

 ORGANIZATION (NATO), and redeveloped major
 economic strength.

Adkins v. Children's Hospital (1923), a landmark
 U.S. Supreme Court decision invalidating a federal
 minimum wage law for women workers in the District
 of Columbia.

Adler, Alfred (1870-1937), Austrian psychiatrist,
 who developed the idea of the inferiority complex
 and the corollary that many people's drive for
 superiority is in compensation for feelings of
 inferiority. Adler was an early disciple of
 Sigmund
 FREUD, but broke with him in 1912 over
 the primacy of sex, believing power relations to be
 more important.

adrenaline (epinephrine), vital
 HORMONE excreted
 by the adrenal gland, which lies above the kidney,
 discovered in 1901 independently by
 Japanese-American chemist Jokichi Takamine and
 Thomas Bell; later found to mobilize the body's
 systems to react to environmental conditions, such
 as danger.

Afars and Issas, Territory of the, name 1966-77 of
 the former colony
 FRENCH SOMALILAND, now


 DJIBOUTI.

Affluent Society, The, a book by John Kenneth
 
GALBRAITH (1958), which sharply criticized
 wasteful U.S. consumption patterns, urging
 redirection of wealth for social service and for
 national and international society-building
 purposes. The book title then moved into the
 language, often being used critically, as intended,
 but sometimes being used to admiringly describe the
 excesses originally criticized.

Afghan-British War (May 1919), a short-lived holy
 war (jihad), mounted by Afghan king
 AMANULLAH

 KHAN, who had succeeded his assassinated father in
 February. His troops attacked across the Indian
 border and were soon repulsed and then pursued by
 superior British-Indian forces with air power,
 forcing an end to hostilities in less than a month,
 although guerrilla war then continued along that
 far-from-peaceful border.

Afghan Civil War (1978- ) and Afghan-Soviet War
 (1979-1989), a civil war that drew massive Soviet
 intervention. In April 1978 a coup organized by the
 radical wing of the People's Democratic Party
 toppled the government of Sardar Mohammed
 DAUD

 KHAN, who was killed during the coup. The new
 government instituted radical changes and was
 opposed by many other groups, who began to form
 themselves into
 MUJAHEDDIN resistance groups.
 Civil war broke out, with the Mujaheddin rebels
 soon winning most of the country and threatening to
 topple the government. The Soviets were
 dissatisfied with government handling of the
 rebellion and ultimately intervened;
 divisional-strength airborne and land invasions of
 Afghanistan on December 25, 1979, took Kabul.
 Afghan premier Hafizullah Amin died during the
 invasion; Babrak 
KARMAL was installed by the
 Soviets as premier. Then followed a 9-year
 Afghan-Soviet war; Soviet troops numbering an
 estimated 130,000, with massive air and armor
 support, proved unable to defeat the Mujaheddin,
 who were headquartered in Pakistan and there
 supplied with U.S. weapons. An estimated 2-3
 million Afghan refugees fled to Pakistan. In 1986
 newly installed Soviet premier Mikhail
 GORBACHEV
 began to negotiate Soviet withdrawal; on April 14,
 1988, a withdrawal agreement was signed at Geneva,
 and Soviet disengagement began, concluding in
 February 1989. However, no end to the continuing
 civil war was negotiated.

Afghanistan (Republic of Afghanistan), until 1919 a
 de facto British protectorate, becoming a monarchy
 under
 AMANULLAH KHAN until the republican coup of
 1973. The republic was overthrown by the coup of
 April 1978; Afghanistan then became a one-party
 Communist state led by Babrak 
KARMAL and from
 1986 by Mohammad
 NAJIBULLAH. The coup was
 followed by the
 AFGHAN CIVIL WAR (1978- ), and
 the 9-year Soviet occupation of the country. After
 the Soviet troop withdrawal, which was completed in
 February 1989, the civil war continued.

AFL, initials of the
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF

 LABOR, by which the organization was best known.


African National Congress (ANC), the leading
 organization of the Black and other nonwhite
 peoples of South Africa from 1912, seeking the
 creation of a multiracial, fully integrated,
 democratic state; the party of Albert
 LUTHULI,
 Nelson
 MANDELA, Winnie
 MANDELA, and Oliver
 
TAMBO. Until the
 SHARPEVILLE MASSACRE of 1960,
 the dominant philosophy in the ANC was that of
 Gandhian nonviolence, even during the years of
 increasing government-directed repression and
 violence following the institution of
 APARTHEID
 in 1948. After Sharpeville, ANC policy began to
 change, and after the outlawing of the ANC in 1961,
 followed by the life imprisonment of Nelson Mandela
 and other ANC leaders, it changed decisively toward
 the development of a guerrilla war against the
 South African government, including acts of
 sabotage and terrorism directed against
 noncombatants. In early 1990, the ANC was once
 again legalized by the South African government.

Agadir Incident (1911), an alternative name for
 the
 MOROCCO CRISIS of 1911.

Agent Orange, U.S. Army code name for a highly
 toxic herbicide, containing 
DIOXIN, that was used
 to defoliate large forest areas during the
 VIETNAM

 WAR. In the late 1970s many Vietnam veterans
 involved in the spraying discovered that they
 themselves had been severely poisoned and that
 their children had been affected; ultimately, mass
 lawsuits forced the Agent Orange manufacturers to
 set up a compensation fund, though they continued
 to deny liability.

Agnew, Spiro Theodore (1918- ), U.S. lawyer,
 Republican governor of Maryland (1967-69), and
 Richard M.
 NIXON'S vice-president (1969-73) who
 strongly opposed anti-
VIETNAM WAR protesters,
 liberalism, and immorality. Under investigation for
 possible corruption while in office in Maryland, he
 denied wrongdoing and pleaded "no contest" to a
 single charge of income tax evasion, later being
 heavily fined and placed on probation. He resigned
 his vice-presidency on October 10, 1973.

Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), U.S.
 federal agency established in 1933 by the
 Agricultural Adjustment Act, a 
NEW DEAL measure
 aimed at controlling farm production by using a
 combination of subsidies, quotas, and taxes, that
 was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court
 in 
UNITED STATES V. BUTLER in 1936. Congress then
 accomplished much the same goals by authorizing a
 system of parity and soil conservation payments,
 storage of surplus products, and production quotas,
 these functions being taken over by the Department
 of Agriculture in 1946.

Aguinaldo, Emilio (1869-1964), president of the
 first Phillippine Republic, and its leader during
 the 
PHILIPPINE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE and
 
PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR.

Ahidjo, Ahmadou (1924- ), Cameroon political
 leader, who entered his country's assembly in 1947,
 when it was still a French trust territory. He
 became premier of French Cameroons in 1958 and was
 first president of the Republic of Cameroon from
 1960 until his retirement in 1982. As president, he
 instituted a federal form of government that
 allowed the unification of several diverse peoples
 to proceed with minimum abrasion, developing a more
 unified single government form in 1972.

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), viral
 disease that attacks the body's immune system,
 leaving it defenseless against infections, such as
 candidiasis or Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, or
 rare cancers, such as Kaposi's sarcoma; a deadly
 illness with an incubation period of possibly 5-10
 years and a mortality rate of perhaps 100%. Thought
 to have originated in Africa, AIDS was recognized
 as a new disease in the United States in 1981,
 though records showed that the earliest cases there
 were probably seen in 1977. The virus causing it
 was identified in 1984 by Robert Gallo of the
 National Cancer Institute and independently by Luc
 Montagnier of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. That
 same year saw the first test for AIDS. At first, it
 seemed-in the United States, at least-to be
 associated with homosexual males, hemophiliacs,
 Haitians, and needle-using drug addicts; though
 homosexual males and addicts continued to be at
 high risk unless they took steps to protect
 themselves, it was soon found that others were also
 at risk, including heterosexuals. In fact, in
 Africa the disease-perhaps of a more powerful
 strain-spread very quickly in heterosexual
 populations. Before the disease was recognized and
 tests developed to screen for it, the AIDS virus
 entered the blood supply, and many 
BLOOD BANKS
 unknowingly spread the disease. In the mid-1980s
 there was widespread concern that the disease would
 be spread by casual contact, leading to ostracism
 of some people who had, or were thought to have,
 AIDS. Medical experts assured the public that the
 HIV (human immuno-deficiency virus, also called
 HTLV, or human T-lymphotropic virus) that causes
 AIDS could be transmitted only through intermixing
 of blood or blood products. As experience largely
 bore out their contention and people became better
 educated about AIDS, hysteria eased somewhat.
 Widespread discrimination remained, however. Many
 people feared testing for the disease lest results
 be made public; yet without testing, infected
 individuals could unknowingly spread the disease to
 others. The conflicting needs of the individual's
 right to privacy and the public's right to be
 protected against infection came into conflict in
 many places along a wide front. Oddly, when a home
 test was developed in the late 1980s, the U.S.
 government blocked its sale, arguing that testing
 must be linked with counseling. The 
U.S. FOOD AND

 DRUG ADMINISTRATION also was criticized for
 retaining its slow, careful process for approving
 medications (a policy eased somewhat in 1989), the
 disease being so deadly that it spurred many AIDS
 patients to spend thousands of dollars on desperate
 remedies, many from quacks and charlatans. In the
 late 1980s various drugs were used to slow the
 effects of the disease, but none to cure it. AIDS
 also sharply tested the medical community, at risk
 through their care of patients; some health care
 workers refused to treat AIDS patients, especially
 to operate or do autopsies. The disease added a
 tremendous burden to an already overstrained
 hospital and social welfare system. By the end of
 the 1980s, though the number infected continued to
 rise around the world and the social questions
 remained acute, physicians had found that, by early
 detection and preventive anti-infection treatment,
 they could extend the length and quality of life
 for many AIDS patients, perhaps by years.

Air America, a U.S. 
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
 (CIA) covert air force operating in southeast Asia
 from 1959 through the 
VIETNAM WAR.

air-cushion vehicle (ACV), craft designed to travel
 over land or water on a self-generated air cushion,
 the best known being the 
HOVERCRAFT designed by
 British engineer Christopher Cockerell in 1955,
 seeing regular service from 1968. ACVs were much
 developed from then on, but practical problems
 persisted, so applications were largely limited to
 industry.

Air India explosion (June 23, 1985), explosion of
 an Air India 747 in midair over the Irish Sea, off
 Ireland, killing 329 people. Although the cause of
 the explosion remained unknown, there was thought
 to have been a bomb aboard.

airplane, engine-powered, heavier-than-air machine
 for piloted flight, first developed by American
 inventor-brothers Wilbur and Orville
 WRIGHT and
 flown successfully on December 17, 1903, at Kill
 Devil Hills, near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
 Lightweight wooden biplanes, with two sets of wings
 connected by struts, were used in small numbers-but
 drew great public attention-in World War I; in 1915
 the Fokker craft became the first to have its
 machine guns synchronized with the propeller.
 Biplanes also were flown by early record-breaking
 aviators such as Charles 
LINDBERGH and by mail
 pilots, who made the first coast-to-coast airmail
 flight in 1920. The first seaplane was developed in
 1911 by American aviator-inventor Glenn Hammond
 
CURTISS. In the 1920s monoplanes (with single
 wings) began to replace biplanes; all-metal
 airplanes were standard by the 1930s and during
 World War II. Daily scheduled airplane flights were
 begun in Europe in 1919; by the 1930s European and
 American planes could carry 30-40 passengers; and
 by 1939 Pan American had begun regular
 trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific service, flying
 the famous "Clippers" built by Igor 
SIKORSKY.
 During World War II most aircraft were
 propeller-driven, though some 
JETS-airplanes
 driven by 
JET PROPULSION-came into use late in
 the war. After World War II, the British Vickers
 Viscount turboprop, a propeller-driven airplane
 with a turbine engine, went into commercial service
 in 1953 and was the standard craft until supplanted
 for general use by jets. In the 1980s scientists
 were experimenting with fuelless airplanes,
 designed to fly on a 
MICROWAVE beam sent up from
 the ground.

Aisne Offensive (May 27-June 6, 1918), the third of
 five major German offensives in 1918, all of them
 aimed at winning World War I with the help of the
 Eastern Front troops freed by Soviet withdrawal
 from the war. German forces attacked French armies
 on the Aisne, advancing 20 miles to the Marne,
 where they were stopped by French and American
 forces. The Americans fought their first
 substantial battles of the war at this time, at
 
CHATEAU-THIERRY and 
BELLEAU WOOD, and began to
 make a significant difference in the course of the
 war.

Aitken, William Maxwell, the given name of the
 British press baron, Lord 
BEAVERBROOK.

Alamogordo, site of the 
TRINITY test, where the
 first experimental 
ATOMIC BOMB was exploded, at a
 U.S. air base in New Mexico on July 16, 1945.

Albania (People's Socialist Republic of Albania),
 until 1912 part of the Ottoman empire, then lapsing
 into near-anarchy until establishment of a republic
 in 1925. The republic lasted 3 years; its leader
 became King Zog I in 1928, ruling over a de facto
 Italian protectorate, which was occupied by Italy
 in 1939 and then by Axis troops during World War
 II. Albania became a one-party Communist state on
 January 11, 1946, led by Enver 
HOXHA; it was part
 of the Soviet bloc until 1961, leaned toward China
 until 1977, and thereafter pursued an independent
 course.

Albania, annexation of (April 7, 1939), the taking
 of Albania by fascist Italy, 13 years after the
 Italian-Albanian treaties of 1926 and 1927, which
 had made Albania essentially an Italian
 protectorate.

Albizu Campos, Pedro (1891-1965), Puerto Rican
 lawyer and leader of the Nationalist Party, who
 advocated violent revolution to establish Puerto
 Rican independence. He spent 20 years in prison for
 his views: 1936-43, on a charge of conspiracy to
 mount an insurrection; 1950-53, after Puerto Rican
 nationalists attempted to assassinate U.S.
 president Harry S. 
TRUMAN; and 1954-64, after
 Puerto Rican nationalists wounded five Congressmen
 in the House of Representatives.

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), a worldwide organization
 of recovering alcoholics, all of whom preserve
 public anonymity and hold themselves available to
 help others who wish to recover from alcoholism.
 Founded in the United States in 1935 by Bill Wilson
 and Bob Smith, AA now has over 1.5 million members.


Aldermaston marches, a series of antinuclear
 demonstrations organized by the British 
CAMPAIGN

 FOR NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT in the late 1950s and
 early 1960s, in which demonstrators marched from
 London to Aldermaston, the site of the British
 Atomic Weapons Research Establishment, to protest
 the development of nuclear arms.

Aleman Valdees, Miguel (1902-83), Mexican lawyer,
 governor, and cabinet officer, who was president of
 Mexico 1946-52. His presidency was marked by
 industrial development but also by growing economic
 problems, despite large-scale foreign investment
 and loans.

Alexander I (1888-1934) self-created dictator of
 Yugoslavia, in 1929, after efforts to bring Serbs,
 Croats, Slovenes, Montenegrins, and others together
 in a united country. He was assassinated by
 Croatian nationalists in Marseilles, France, on
 October 9, 1934.

Alexander, Harold (1891-1969), British officer and
 World War II general, who saw action in World War I
 and was commander of the British forces during the
 final evacuation of 
DUNKIRK in 1940 and the last
 man off the beach. Two years later, in 1942, he
 commanded British forces in Burma, falling back
 before the invading Japanese. That summer he became
 British Middle Eastern commander and thereafter the
 chief organizer of Allied victory in North Africa.
 He commanded joint British-American forces invading
 Italy and later all Allied forces in the region, in
 1944 becoming a field marshal.

Alfonsin Foulkes, Raul (1927- ), Argentinian lawyer
 and political leader, who became president in 1983,
 succeeding the military government that had lost
 the Falklands War and conducted the 
DIRTY WAR. He
 immediately moved to restore democracy, prosecute
 those who committed and authorized the murders of
 the dirty war, and revive Argentina's seriously
 damaged economy.

Algeciras Conference (1906-1907), meeting that
 ended the 
MOROCCO CRISIS OF 1905.

Algeria (Democratic and Popular Republic of
 Algeria), until 1962 a French colony, becoming an
 independent nation on July 3, 1962, after the
 1954-62 
ALGERIAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, and then a
 one-party Islamic Socialist state, led successively
 by Ahmed Ben 
BELLA, Houari 
BOUMEDIENNE, and
 Ben-Jedid 
CHADLI.

Algerian War of Independence (1954-62), a
 successful Algerian rebellion against French rule,
 initiated by the 
FLN (National Liberation Front)
 after almost a decade of growing Arab nationalism
 following World War II. By 1956 heavy guerrilla
 fighting had spread throughout the country's rural
 areas, then moving into Algiers. During the late
 1950s an estimated 60,000-100,000 Algerian
 guerrillas, operating within a wholly friendly Arab
 population and receiving arms and support from
 bases in Tunisia, confronted 400,000-500,000 French
 army troops. In May 1958 a revolt of French
 officers in Algiers, led by General Jacques
 
MASSU, nearly triggered a civil war in France,
 brought down the Fourth Republic, and brought
 Charles 
DE GAULLE's Fifth Republic to power. In
 September 1958 the Algerian rebels set up a
 provisional government in Tunis. De Gaulle
 continued the war but sought peace. During 1958 he
 offered self-determination to Algeria, put down the
 officers' revolt, released some captured FLN
 leaders, and resisted 
SECRET ARMY ORGANIZATION
 (OAS) terrorism from the right. The French army put
 down a right-wing French colonists' revolt in
 Algiers in 1960 and a French army mutiny led by
 General Raoul 
SALAN in 1961. In March 1962
 negotiations at Evian-les-Bains in France brought
 about an Algerian ceasefire. Ahmed 
BEN BELLA
 became premier of the new Algerian government;
 independence came on July 3, 1962.

All power to the Soviets, a 
BOLSHEVIK slogan put
 forward by Vladimir Illich 
LENIN on his return
 from exile in April 1917.

All the President's Men (1974), book by 
WASHINGTON

 POST reporters Robert 
WOODWARD and Carl
 
BERNSTEIN about the uncovering of the 
WATERGATE
 scandal, which eventually forced the resignation of
 U.S. president Richard M. 
NIXON.

Allenby, Edmund Henry Hynman (1861-1936), British
 general, who first fought in France during World
 War I and in 1917 became commander of the British
 Expeditionary Force in Egypt, from there taking
 Palestine and Syria.

Allende Gossens, Salvador (1908-73), Chilean
 physician, Marxian socialist, and political leader,
 a founder of the Chilean Socialist Party in 1933,
 in congress 1937-70. Allende unsuccessfully ran for
 the presidency as head of a leftist coalition three
 times (1952, 1958, 1964) before winning a plurality
 in 1970. As president he moved to put his socialist
 program into effect, nationalizing much of the
 economy and instituting land reforms, while
 encountering powerful domestic opposition from the
 right and center. As the first elected Marxist head
 of state in Latin America, he also encountered
 powerful U.S. opposition, the U.S. 
CENTRAL

 INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA) joining his domestic
 enemies in seeking to unseat his government, which
 was toppled by the military coup of September 11,
 1973. Allende died during the coup; he was widely
 reported to have been murdered, as were large
 numbers of his supporters during and after the
 coup, although the new military government claimed
 that he had committed suicide.

allergy, hypersensitivity to foreign substances.
 The most extreme form of allergy is anaphylaxis,
 extreme sensitivity to the injection of a foreign
 substance, such as penicillin or a bee sting; a
 subsequent injection can provoke a severe reaction
 and if the patient is untreated can lead to shock
 and possibly death. French researcher Charles R.
 Richet first identified anaphylaxis in 1902, for
 which he received the 1913 Nobel Prize for
 Physiology or Medicine. Other allergies are less
 serious but far more common. The term "allergy" was
 introduced in 1906 to refer to people who became
 ill after receiving medications and to hay fever
 sufferers, for whom pollen desensitization
 treatments were begun in 1910, the same year that
 asthma was first seen as an allergy. Gradual
 recognition of the role of histamines in the
 allergic reaction led in 1937 to the development of
 antihistamines by French pharmacologist Daniele
 Bovet, for which he won the 1957 Nobel Prize for
 Physiology or Medicine.

Alliance for Progress, an inter-American initiative
 proposed by president John F. 
KENNEDY in March
 1961, and formally stated by the 
ORGANIZATION OF

 AMERICAN STATES in August 1961. Its aim was to
 join massive U.S. aid to internally generated Latin
 American funds, creating programs to help stimulate
 economic and educational self-development in Latin
 America. In practice, the initiative proved to be
 more slogan than substance.

Allies, during 
WORLD WAR I, the major acting
 participants on the Allied side were France, the
 British Empire, Russia, the United States, Serbia,
 Italy, Belgium, Greece, Rumania, and Montenegro.
 During 
WORLD WAR II, the major Allies were
 ultimately the United States, the Soviet Union, the
 British Commonwealth, France, China, Poland, and
 Yugoslavia. There were 19 other Allied signatories
 to the original Declaration of the United Nations.


Alliluyeva, Svetlana, (1926- ) the daughter of
 Joseph 
STALIN, who defected from the Soviet Union
 in 1967, returned in 1984, and emigrated again in
 1986.

alpha particles, one of the three products of
 natural 
RADIOACTIVITY, found to be the nuclei of
 helium atoms, without the usual 
ELECTRONS;
 discovered and named by Ernest 
RUTHERFORD in the
 early 1900s.

alpha rhythms, type of brain wave associated with
 relaxation, first discovered by Hans Berger using
 his 
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH (EEG).

Alsace-Lorraine, a disputed French-German border
 region in eastern France, that was taken by Germany
 in 1871 after its victory in the Franco-Prussian
 War, taken back by France in 1918 after its victory
 in World War I; retaken by Germany in 1940, and won
 back by France in 1945.

Alsop, Joseph Wright, Jr. (1910-89), U.S.
 journalist, who played an influential role in
 developing support for government policy during the
 early years of the 
COLD WAR and for American
 intervention in the 
VIETNAM WAR.

Alvarez, Luis Walter (1911-88), U.S. physicist, who
 developed a much-enhanced 
BUBBLE CHAMBER and with
 it detected many previously unknown subatomic
 
PARTICLES, resulting in new theories by
 physicists such as Murray 
GELL-MANN. Early in
 World War II, Alvarez worked on 
RADAR, developing
 a microwave beam that permitted all-weather
 landing; in 1944 he joined the team building the
 
ATOMIC BOMB at Los Alamos and flew in the Enola
 Gay's  companion plane when the bomb was dropped on
 
 HIROSHIMA. After the war his work with the
 bubble chamber, and with linear 
ACCELERATORS won
 him the 1968 Nobel Prize for Physics. In 1980, with
 his geologist son Walter, he developed the
 controversial theory that dinosaurs became extinct
 some 65 million years ago at the end of the
 Cretaceous and beginning of the Tertiary periods
 because the Earth was hit by a huge meteorite, an
 idea sparking fears for a 
NUCLEAR WINTER in case
 of future atomic war.

Alzheimer's disease, debilitating illness that
 causes progressive loss of intellectual
 functioning; long thought a routine part of the
 aging process for much of the population, it was
 first recognized as a disease in 1906 by German
 neurologist-pathologist Alois Alzheimer. Despite
 much research, however, diagnosis remained
 difficult late in the century, and effective
 treatment was likewise elusive.

Amal (al-Amal; Movement of the Deprived), Shiite
 Moslem Lebanese political organization and militia,
 supported in some periods by Syria and influenced
 by Iran, that during the 1980s became an
 increasingly strong military and political factor
 in the 
LEBANESE WARS.

Amanullah Khan (1892-1960), king of Afghanistan
 (1919-29), who succeeded to the throne after the
 assassination of his father, Habibullah Khan, in
 February 1919 and in May began the short-lived
 
AFGHAN-BRITISH WAR. He ruled until 1928, when a
 revolt drove him into exile.

America First Committee, an organization opposed to
 American entry into World War II, which terminated
 its activities after December 7, 1941. Although it
 was largely dominated by pro-Nazi organizations, it
 attracted many conservatives as well, including
 aviator Charles A. 
LINDBERGH, its most prominent
 member and spokesperson.

American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), an
 organization founded in 1920 by Jane 
ADDAMS,
 Helen 
KELLER, Roger 
BALDWIN (its director
 1920-50), and many other like-minded Americans for
 the purpose of preserving and developing the
 constitutionally guaranteed rights of all
 Americans, whatever their beliefs. With the sole
 exception of a weakening of this resolve during the
 witchhunts of the 
MCCARTHY period, that purpose
 has been followed, from such cases as those of
 
SCOPES and 
SACCO AND VANZETTI in the 1920s to a
 defense of the right of American Nazis to march in
 Skokie, Illinois, in 1978. The organization came
 under attack by then-presidential candidate George
 
BUSH during the 1988 presidential campaign, who
 accused his opponent, Michael 
DUKAKIS, of being a
 "card-carrying member" of the ACLU, a charge widely
 criticized for its associations with the
 "card-carrying Communist" charges of Senator Joseph
 
MCCARTHY during the witchhunts of the 1950s.

American Expeditionary Force (AEF), the U.S. army
 in France during World War I.

American Federation of Labor (AFL), a U.S. labor
 organization organized in 1886, consisting of a
 group of craft unions seeking to improve the wages
 and working conditions of its members and opposing
 direct union participation in politics, though
 acting as a special interest group in political
 matters. Led successively by Samuel 
GOMPERS,
 William 
GREEN, and George 
MEANY, the AFL
 generally resisted the organization of the
 unskilled and of industrial unions, splitting in
 1935-36 over the organization of industrial unions.
 Some AFL unions then formed the Committee for
 Industrial Organizations, which became the
 
CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (CIO). The
 great organizing success of the CIO in the next
 decade created a rival labor federation as large as
 the AFL itself. But both organizations faltered
 somewhat in the post-World War II period, with
 racketeering a great problem for the AFL; the CIO
 split over 
COLD WAR political issues, the passage
 of the 
TAFT-HARTLEY ACT, and a turn toward
 conservatism in the United States. George Meany led
 the AFL into a merged AFL-CIO in 1955.

American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial
 Organizations (AFL-CIO), from 1955 the single
 organization that joined the AFL and CIO, which had
 developed as separate organizations since the
 mid-1930s split in the AFL over the industrial
 union question and the organization of the CIO.
 Walter 
REUTHER led the CIO and George 
MEANY led
 the AFL into the joined federation; Meany was its
 first president, succeeded by Lane 
KIRKLAND in
 1979. The federation expelled the Teamsters Union
 for corruption in 1957, and Reuther led the United
 Automobile Workers (UAW) back out of the federation
 in 1968, the union later reaffiliating. The AFL-CIO
 generally supported Democratic candidates from the
 1950s through the 1980s, but evidenced little power
 to organize the unorganized or to strongly
 influence the course of political events after the
 1960s.

American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), an
 American Quaker-based pacifist, nonviolent, and
 peace-fostering organization that educates and
 campaigns against all forms of war and for nuclear
 and all other forms of disarmament.

American Indian Movement (AIM), a radical activist
 organization, that in the 1970s mounted a series of
 demonstrations, in an attempt to capture national
 support for a series of economic and civil rights
 demands on behalf of American Indians; the best
 known of these was the 1973 occupation of the
 Wounded Knee massacre site in South Dakota.

Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), U.S.
 anti-Communist liberal organization founded in
 1947, as leading American liberals attempted to
 distance themselves from Communism during the early
 years of the 
COLD WAR, and the postwar
 anti-Communist hysteria that developed into the
 
MCCARTHY period. Members of the ADA exerted some
 influence in liberal Democratic politics through
 the early 1960s, but thereafter the organization
 had little influence.

Amiens Offensive (August 8-September 4, 1918),
 World War I push in which Allied forces attacked
 weakened German forces at Amiens and then along
 much of the Western Front, forcing German
 withdrawal to the 
HINDENBURG LINE. These attacks
 and the clearing of the 
ST.-MIHIEL salient
 cleared the way for the final Allied offensives of
 the war.

Amin, Idi (Idi Amin Dada Oumee; 1925- ), Ugandan
 officer, who became armed forces chief in 1966 and
 in 1971 headed the military coup that toppled
 President Milton 
OBOTE. Amin then became
 president and dictator of Uganda, in the process
 instituting an 8-year reign of terror, replete with
 atrocities that attracted worldwide condemnation.
 He was deposed during the 
UGANDA-TANZANIA WAR of
 1979 by Tanzanian troops invading Uganda in support
 of Ugandan insurgents; he then fled to Libya and
 later lived in Saudi Arabia.

Amnesty International, a worldwide London-based
 human rights organization, founded in 1961, that
 works to free prisoners of conscience in all
 countries, ameliorate their conditions of
 imprisonment, abolish the use of torture, and help
 the families of those imprisoned; a recipient of
 the 1977 Nobel Peace Prize.

amniocentesis, withdrawal of fluid from the
 amniotic sac surrounding the fetus in a pregnant
 woman, to analyze shed fetal cells for genetic
 problems; a procedure pioneered in 1952 by British
 physician Douglas Bevis. If a serious disease or
 defect is found, such as 
DOWN'S SYNDROME, the
 parents may choose to have the fetus aborted or the
 defect corrected through 
FETAL SURGERY.
 Amniocentesis is most often used when mothers are
 over 35 or family medical history may suggest
 serious genetic problems, and its use sparked the
 growth of genetic counseling.

Amoco Cadiz, a supertanker that broke up on rocks
 in a storm off Portsall, Brittany, on March 17,
 1978, spilling 1.6 million barrels of oil into the
 sea, the worst oil spill to date. The spill created
 a massive environmental disaster on the coast of
 western Europe, seriously affecting 200 miles of
 coastline, as well as coastal waters.

Amritsar massacre (April 13, 1919), killing of at
 least 379 people and wounding of 1,200 more when
 British troops in India's Punjab, commanded by
 General Reginald Dyer, fired on a crowd of an
 estimated 10,000 unarmed demonstrators trapped in
 an open plaza called the Jallianwalla Bagh, which
 had only one exit. The massacre, accompanied by
 martial law and followed by a wave of repressive
 activities, was a central event in the development
 of the Indian independence movement, immensely
 aiding the growth of anti-British feeling and
 nationalist organization.

Amundsen, Roald Engelbregt (1872-1928), Norwegian
 explorer, who led the first party to reach the
 
SOUTH POLE, arriving on December 14, 1911, one
 month before Robert 
SCOTT's ill-fated party. In
 1903-06 Amundsen had been the first to sail the
 fabled 
NORTHWEST PASSAGE; in 1918-20 he was the
 second person, the first in the 20th century, to
 traverse the 
NORTHEAST PASSAGE without wintering
 over. In 1926, he, Lincoln 
ELLSWORTH, and Umberto
 
NOBILE were the first to fly in a 
DIRIGIBLE
 over the North Pole, though their claim was
 disputed by some. Amundsen died 2 years later
 searching for Nobile, whose dirigible had crashed
 near Spitsbergen.

An Loc, Siege of (April-July 1972), a
 divisional-strength 
VIETNAM WAR engagement, in
 which North Vietnamese forces attacking in the
 spring 
EASTER OFFENSIVE ultimately were repelled
 by the South Vietnamese with U.S. air support.

analog computer, type of 
COMPUTER that deals in
 continuous variables, such as temperature or
 voltage, unlike 
DIGITAL COMPUTERS, which work
 with discrete variables, such as numbers or on-off
 signals. The first analog computers, prototypes for
 later electronic versions, were the "network
 analyzer" and ""differential analyzer'' developed
 by Vannevar 
BUSH 1925-30. Most modern computers
 are of the digital type, analog computers being
 best suited to network analysis in special areas
 such as electrical power networks, telephone
 systems, hydraulic systems, and psychoneurological
 networks.

anaphylaxis, extreme type of 
ALLERGY that can
 lead to shock and possibly death, first identified
 in 1902 by French researcher Charles R. Richet.

anarchism, the replacement of the state and all
 other centralized political forms by free,
 uncoerced cooperation between individuals, who can
 then develop a completely egalitarian society. From
 the late 19th century, in a protracted attempt to
 destroy state power, some individuals and small
 groups of anarchists in many countries made
 assassination attempts on leaders in many
 countries, as in the 1901 assassination of U.S.
 president William 
MCKINLEY. Anarchism was then
 strongly linked with 
TERRORISM, though the use of
 assassination and other kinds of terrorism was by
 no means limited to anarchists, then or later in
 the century. During the 20th century, anarchism
 became associated with 
SYNDICALISM, as
 anarcho-syndicalism, in that form joining trade
 unionism with anarchist philosophy in advocating
 the development of unions that would radicalize
 masses of workers, paralyze society by means of a
 general strike, and take power directly without
 developing other political forms. This was the
 basic approach of the 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE

 WORLD and had considerable labor movement strength
 in Spain, France, and Latin America until the
 1930s. In the 1960s a strong stream of anarchist
 thinking was present in the student movements of
 the time, although in many instances it was not
 recognized as such by those attempting to attack
 state power.

anarcho-syndicalism, 20th-century movement marrying
 
ANARCHISM with 
SYNDICALISM, advocating the
 development of unions that would radicalize masses
 of workers, paralyze society by means of a general
 strike, and take power directly without developing
 other political forms.

Anastasia, the youngest child of Czar 
NICHOLAS II
 and Alexandra Fyodorovna, a possible survivor of
 her family's murder in 1918; several have claimed
 her identity since but without conclusive evidence.
 The story of Anastasia has generated many books,
 and two American films, including the classic 1956
 Anatole Litvak film, Anastasia, with Ingrid Bergman
 in the title role.

Anderson, John Bayard (1922- ), U.S. lawyer, in
 Congress as a Republican from 1960, who ran for the
 presidency as an independent in 1980 after failing
 to win the Republican presidential nomination. He
 secured 7% of the popular vote and no electoral
 votes.

Anderson, Marian (1902- ), U.S. singer, one of the
 most celebrated artists of her time, who because of
 her race was in 1939 denied the use of Constitution
 Hall in Washington, D.C., by the Daughters of the
 American Revolution (DAR). Eleanor 
ROOSEVELT then
 intervened, sponsoring a concert on Easter Sunday
 1939 at the Lincoln Memorial; an estimated
 75,000-100,000 came to hear Anderson sing, and to
 affirm their own democratic beliefs.

Anderson, Terry, one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, an Associated Press Middle East
 correspondent who was kidnapped on March 15, 1985.


Andrea Doria sinking (June 26, 1956), the sinking
 of the Italian liner 
ANDREA DORIA in fog off
 Nantucket Island, after the prow of the Swedish
 liner Stockholm struck it amidships; rescue ships
 found most of the survivors, but 51 died.

Andrews, Roy Chapman (1884-1960), U.S. explorer and
 naturalist, long associated with New York City's
 American Museum of Natural History, who made many
 expeditions searching for plants and animals, live
 and extinct. After early specialization in whales,
 working off Alaska and East Asia, he conducted land
 explorations in east and central Asia, discovering
 major new fossil fields, including the first
 complete dinosaur eggs ever found, and writing
 popular books about his travels.

Andropov, Yuri Vladimirovich (1914-84), Soviet
 Communist Party official, who saw service in World
 War II, was Soviet ambassador to Hungary 1954-57,
 and was head of the KGB 1967-82. In November 1982,
 he became his party's general secretary and leader
 of the Soviet Union, adding the title of president
 in June 1983. Although he was ill during most of
 his brief tenure, he strongly supported the new
 generation of Soviet leaders then emerging, led by
 Mikhail 
GORBACHEV, and many of the anticorruption
 and other reforms then being discussed, preparing
 the way for the massive changes of the Gorbachev
 era.

anemia, insufficiency of red blood cells, a
 condition first treated with a diet high in liver
 in 1926 by George Minot and William Murphy,
 following George Whipple's 1920 experiments with
 dogs, work for which all three received the 1934
 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. Later it
 was found that liver was high in 
VITAMIN B. By
 1947 Mary Shorb had developed a liver extract used
 for treating anemia.

Angel Island, an island in San Francisco Bay that
 was used as a U.S. immigration station 1910-40.
 Until the mid-1920s the island was the site of a
 major U.S. immigration service attempt to impede
 Chinese immigration, with immigrants often detained
 for periods of up to 2 years in conditions much
 like those of a poorly maintained prison.

Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902), mutual assistance
 pacts regarding Chinese and Korean interests, which
 encouraged Japan to enter the 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
 of 1904-05, to annex Korea in 1911, and to enter
 World War I on the 
ALLIED side; the pacts were
 abrogated in 1923.

Anglo-Russian Entente, the St. Petersburg agreement
 of August 31, 1907, delineating but not entirely
 settling Russian and British spheres of influence
 in Central Asia; it was part of the settling of the
 European powers into two rival systems that
 characterized the period before World War I.

Angola (People's Republic of Angola), until 1975 a
 Portuguese colony, winning independence on November
 10, 1975, after the long 
ANGOLAN WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE (1961-74), followed by the even
 longer (1975- ) 
ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR. In 1975 the
 country became the one-party, Marxist-oriented
 People's Republic of Angola.

Angolan Civil War (1975- ), conflict that began on
 November 11, 1975, the day after the Portuguese
 pulled out of Angola, ending the long 
ANGOLAN WAR

 OF INDEPENDENCE. The three insurgent groups that
 had fought for independence split the next day;
 when the Soviet-backed 
POPULAR MOVEMENT FOR THE

 LIBERATION OF ANGOLA (MLPA), led by Augustinho
 
NETO, proclaimed the People's Republic of Angola,
 the 
NATIONAL FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA
 (FNLA), led by Holden 
ROBERTO, and the 
NATIONAL

 UNION FOR THE TOTAL INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA
 (UNITA), led by Jonas 
SAVIMBI, joined in armed
 opposition to the new government. Operating in the
 north, the FNLA was by 1979 completely defeated by
 the MPLA, which was joined by an estimated 40,000
 Cuban troops and also by Soviet advisors and
 heavily supplied by the Soviet Union. UNITA,
 operating in the south, received backing from
 Portuguese exiles and the South African government,
 including the support of an estimated 5,000 South
 African troops early in the conflict. When the
 South African troops were withdrawn, at the end of
 1975, UNITA successfully went over to the same sort
 of hit-and-run guerrilla war that all three
 organizations had conducted against the Portuguese,
 with continuing South African war material support.
 In some periods, UNITA was also supported by South
 African trooops moving across the Namibian border
 in search of Namibian guerrillas based in Angola.
 After 13 years of civil war, in August 1988 the
 United States mediated an agreement between Angola,
 Cuba, and South Africa, providing for the staged
 withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola and the
 cessation of South African aid to UNITA. In
 November the same parties agreed on a timetable for
 Cuban withdrawal and on independence for Namibia.
 UNITA, which was not a participant in the peace
 talks, vowed to fight on. A UNITA-MPLA truce was
 signed on June 22, 1989, but held for only 2
 months. The Namibian Independence agreement did
 hold, and free elections, which gave SWAPO a
 majority, were held in November, 1989.

Angolan War of Independence (1961-74), a long
 guerrilla war against the Portuguese, conducted by
 three major organizations. From 1961, the
 Soviet-backed 
POPULAR MOVEMENT FOR THE LIBERATION

 OF ANGOLA (MPLA), led by Augustinho 
NETO, fought
 in central Angola, mainly out of bases in Zambia.
 The 
NATIONAL FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA
 (FNLA), led by Holden 
ROBERTO, fought in northern
 Angola, mainly out of bases in Zaire. In 1966 these
 were joined by the 
NATIONAL UNION FOR THE TOTAL

 INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA (UNITA), led by Jonas
 
SAVIMBI, which operated in southern and eastern
 Angola. Although the insurgent forces could not
 take Luanda, the capital, by the early 1970s they
 controlled much of the countryside, tying down an
 estimated half of the Portuguese army in a long,
 fruitless colonial war. In 1974 an army coup in
 Lisbon toppled the Portuguese government; the new
 government then negotiated independence with the
 temporarily united insurgents, the Portuguese
 finishing their withdrawal on November 10, 1975. On
 November 11 the MPLA announced formation of the
 People's Republic of Angola, the FNLA and UNITA
 went into armed opposition, and the 
ANGOLAN CIVIL

 WAR began.

Anhwei Incident (1941), an alternate name for the
 
NEW FOURTH ARMY INCIDENT, in which Chinese
 Nationalist troops attacked their communist allies
 during the 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR, presaging the
 renewed civil war that would come after the defeat
 of Japan.

Animal Farm (1945), a George 
ORWELL novel,
 bitterly satirizing Soviet society during the
 
STALIN era, charging that the 
RUSSIAN

 REVOLUTION had been betrayed by its leadership.

Anual, Battle of (1921), 
RIF WAR battle, in which
 Moroccan republican forces ambushed and destroyed a
 much larger, 20,000-strong Spanish force, killing
 an estimated 12,000 and capturing most of those
 left alive.

Anschluss (March 12, 1938), the German annexation
 of Austria, after several years of German attempts
 to take over the country by use of indigenous Nazi
 organizations; the annexation was part of the
 run-up to World War II, for total lack of
 resistance, within or outside Austria, encouraged
 Hitler's adventurism. Austria was itself a
 dictatorship at the time; in 1934 Chancellor
 Engelbert 
DOLLFUSS had dissolved all other
 political parties and put down a subsequent Social
 Democratic uprising before being assassinated in a
 failed German-directed Austrian Nazi coup. His
 successor, Kurt von 
SCHUSCHNIGG, had continued
 the dictatorship and tried for a time to resist
 Nazi takeover but could not do so when his Italian
 support evaporated.

Antarctic Treaty (December 1959), a multinational
 treaty effective June 1961, providing that
 Antarctica would be a nuclear test-free zone,
 adopting the principle of multinational Antarctic
 scientific research, and agreeing to defer
 resolution of territorial claims in the area until
 the December 1989 treaty expiration.

Antarctica, world's southernmost continent, site of
 the 
SOUTH POLE and hence the target of numerous
 20th-century expeditions, as well as many research
 efforts in the 
INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR
 (1957-58), after which the region was proclaimed an
 unmilitarized zone kept open for international
 research.

Anti-Comintern Pact (November 25, 1936), a
 German-Japanese treaty, in which both countries
 agreed to support each other against the countries
 of the 
COMMUNIST INTERNATIONAL, led by the Soviet
 Union. The agreement was part of the run-up to
 World War II, but did not result in Japanese
 invasion of the Soviet Union after the German 1941
 invasion.

antiballistic missile (ABM), type of interceptor
 missile that destroys incoming 
BALLISTIC MISSILES
 in flight however the incoming missiles originate;
 in use from the 1970s.

antibiotic, organic substance that kills bacteria
 without killing the body infected by them, the
 first found and most notable of them being
 penicillin, discovered by Alexander 
FLEMING in
 1928. Rene 
DUBOS was the first person to
 deliberately search in the soil for naturally
 occurring antibiotics, finding two-gramicidin and
 tyrocidin-in 1939, a search widened by others with
 the success of penicillin, refined and available
 for medical use by 1940. In 1943 Selman A. Waksman
 and others discovered streptomycin and in 1949
 neomycin; in 1944 Benjamin Duggar and others
 discovered Aureomycin, the first of the
 tetracycline antibiotics, made available for
 medical use by 1948. Other discoveries followed,
 some from soil and fungi, some synthesized by
 researchers. And the search continues, for with
 widespread use of antibiotics new strains of
 antibiotic-resistant bacteria have developed,
 especially since many livestock raised for food are
 routinely fed antibiotics.

antielectron, alternate name for the 
POSITRON,
 the first known particle of 
ANTIMATTER.

Antigua and Barbuda, until 1958, a British colony,
 Antigua and the neighboring Caribbean island of
 Barbuda then became a territory and on November 1,
 1981, an independent member of the 
COMMONWEALTH.
 Except for the period 1971-75, the country has
 since 1961 been led by Prime Minister Vere Cornwall
 Bird.

antimatter, atomic 
PARTICLES of equal size but
 opposite electrical charge to other atomic
 particles; on meeting, particles and antiparticles
 annihilate each other, their mass being converted
 to energy. British physicist Paul 
DIRAC first
 predicted the existence of antimatter in 1928,
 confirmed in 1932 when U.S. physicist Carl Anderson
 discovered the positron (or antielectron), the
 positively charged counterpart of the negatively
 charged 
ELECTRON. In 1934 Louis 
DE BROGLIE
 introduced the term antiparticle. In 1955
 Italian-American physicist Emilio Segre and Owen
 Chamberlain discovered the antiproton, and a year
 later a California team found the antineutron.
 Before long some scientists were talking about the
 possible existence of whole galaxies of antimatter
 in the universe.

Antonescu, Ion (1882-1946), a Rumanian fascist who
 took power in 1940, bringing Rumania into World War
 II on the side of the 
AXIS. In August 1944, with
 Soviet armies about to take Rumania, he was
 overthrown and in 1946 was executed by the Rumanian
 government.

Anvil-Dragoon, Operation, the Allied code name for
 the August-September 1944 French Mediterranean
 coast landings and subsequent pursuit of German
 forces in the 
SOUTHERN FRANCE CAMPAIGN.

Anzio landings, World War II invasion of Italy by
 Allied seaborne forces on January 22, 1944, landing
 at Anzio, south of Rome and north of the 
GUSTAV

 LINE, the strongly held German defensive line
 running across Italy. The troops landed were to
 move inland, cut German communications lines, and
 link up with Allied forces advancing from the
 south, across the Gustav Line. The landing was
 made, but Allied troops were then pinned for 4
 months on their small beachhead, much like the
 Allied troops at 
GALLIPOLI in World War I, while
 the advance failed to materialize. Ultimately, in
 May, the Gustav Line was breached; Allied troops
 broke out of the Anzio beachheads and joined those
 coming north from the smashed Gustav Line.

A-1, first French 
SATELLITE, launched November
 26, 1965, making France the third nation in the
 world to achieve space capability, after the Soviet
 Union and the United States.

Apalachin Conference, meeting attended by most of
 the leaders of organized crime in the United
 States, at the Apalachin, New York, home of Joseph
 Barbara, Sr. A raid on the meeting by New York
 state police on November 14, 1957, led to 58
 arrests, with great attendant publicity but no
 significant convictions.

apartheid, the South African system of racial
 segregation, aimed at institutionalizing racism and
 preserving the dominance of the country's minority
 white population. The term was a plank in the 1948
 electoral platform of the 
NATIONAL PARTY; the
 election brought the 
MALAN government to power,
 which then proceeded to create the system promised
 by the slogan. The apartheid laws adopted from the
 late 1940s through the early 1960s included a great
 many punitive provisions aimed at Blacks, other
 nonwhites, and all opponents of the regime,
 including internal deportations and exiles,
 educational segregation, prohibition of interracial
 marriages and sexual activities, abolition of the
 right of Blacks to strike, and the creation of
 Black "homelands." These were accompanied by the
 Suppression of Communism Act of 1950, which was the
 basic vehicle for the creation of the police state
 that South Africa then became. Apartheid also
 became an excuse for the widespread abuse of
 dissidents of all races, with an increasingly
 powerful secret police wielding more and more power
 as South African society was pulled apart by
 apartheid, four decades of civil disorders, and a
 growing guerrilla war. Apartheid also made South
 Africa a pariah among the nations of the world,
 being condemned by the 
UNITED NATIONS repeatedly
 from 1952 on and by the other nations of the
 
COMMONWEALTH in 1961, after the 
SHARPEVILLE

 MASSACRE of 1960. Apartheid has brought worldwide
 boycotts of South African goods and sports, the
 withdrawal of many foreign business firms, and
 widespread internal disturbances, including the
 massive 
SOWETO RIOTS of 1976. During the 1980s,
 facing enraged world opinion and an intransigent
 internal freedom movement, the 
BOTHA government
 took a series of steps aimed at easing some of the
 most objectionable features of apartheid, but had
 little success in altering world opinion or braking
 internal opposition. In the autumn of 1989, the new
 South African government, led by F.W. de Klerk took
 a series of steps aimed at relieving tensions,
 including the release of Walter Sisulu and other
 long-imprisoned leaders of the 
AFRICAN NATIONAL

 CONGRESS and the legalization of the ANC.

Apollo, series of U.S. spacecraft that in 1969
 first put humans on the Moon, following President
 John F. 
KENNEDY's May 1961 promise to do so
 within the decade. The Apollo program built on the
 manned 
MERCURY and 
GEMINI space flights and
 also earlier U.S. unmanned spacecraft programs,
 including Ranger, which transmitted 
TELEVISION
 pictures of the Moon before making a "hard" or
 crash landing on it; Surveyor, which developed the
 techniques for making a "soft" landing on the Moon;
 and Lunar Orbiter, which explored possible landing
 sites. Tragedy struck in January 1967, when Virgil
 I. (Gus) 
GRISSOM, Edward H. White II, and Roger
 B. Chaffee died in a fire on the ground during a
 flight rehearsal. But NASA recovered. On July 20,
 1969, Neil 
ARMSTRONG stepped from the lunar
 module onto the Moon's surface, followed by Edwin
 Aldrin, Jr.; Michael Collins remained in lunar
 orbit aboard the Apollo 11's command module. Other
 Apollo landings followed, bringing back lunar
 samples and carrying out various experiments, the
 final mission being Apollo 17, launched on December
 7, 1972. Apollo 18 and the U.S.S.R.'s SOYUZ 19,
 both launched on July 15, 1975, docked together in
 space, on the first joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. mission.

appeasement, Neville 
CHAMBERLAIN's policy, joined
 in by the French government, of allowing Germany to
 have its way in Europe, which from the mid- 1930s
 allowed the 
NAZIS to occupy the 
RHINELAND and
 part of Austria, and take Czechoslovakia.
 Appeasement paved the way for World War II, rather
 than bringing the "
PEACE FOR OUR TIME" that
 Chamberlain thought his policy had bought when he
 gave away Czechoslovakia at 
MUNICH in 1938. The
 policy ended after the German takeover of the rest
 of Czechoslovakia, in March 1939, by then too late
 to avert the coming war.

Aqualung, underwater breathing apparatus developed
 in 1943 by Jacques 
COUSTEAU and Emil Gagnan,
 popularly called 
SCUBA gear.

Aquino, Corazon (Corazon Cojuangco; 1933- ),
 president of the Philippines, who took over the
 leadership of the Liberal Party after her husband,
 opposition leader Benigno Aquino, was assassinated
 in August 1983, on his return from exile. In 1986
 she ran for the presidency against Ferdinand
 
MARCOS in an election that generated the events
 of the 
PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION. She emerged from
 the revolution president of the Republic of the
 Philippines, turning her country toward democracy
 and constitutional government, while at the same
 time attempting to bring an end to continuing
 Communist insurgency, repeated coup attempts, and
 threats from the right, all within the context of a
 national economy in considerable difficulty.

Arab League (League of Arab States), organization
 formed in Cairo in March 1945 by Egypt, Saudi
 Arabia, Iraq, Jordan (then Transjordan), Syria,
 Lebanon, and Yemen, later joined by several other
 Arab and partly Arab states and by the 
PALESTINE

 LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO). Although largely
 concerned with the long Arab-Israeli conflict and
 with economic, political, and propaganda pressure
 against Israel, the League also functioned as a
 forum for competing groups of Arab states and
 supported the Iraqi side during the 
IRAN-IRAQ

 WAR. In 1979, Egypt, until then the leading member
 of the League, was suspended for making a separate
 peace treaty with Israel.

Arab Legion, the Jordanian army, organized after
 World War I and trained and commanded by British
 officers 1921-56, during much of that period being
 the most effective fighting force in the Arab
 world. It was commanded by John Bagot 
GLUBB
 (Glubb Pasha) 1939-56. In 1948, during the 
FIRST

 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR (ISRAELI WAR OF INDEPENDENCE),
 the Arab Legion defeated the Israeli army at
 Jerusalem and held much of what is now the 
WEST

 BANK for Jordan.

Arab Revolt (June 5, 1916), an insurrection in the
 Arabian Hejaz region; Arabs led by 
HUSSEIN IBN

 ALI, Sharif of Mecca, declared their independence
 from Turkish rule, attacked Medina, and took Mecca,
 beginning the war for Arab independence as
 associates of the Allies in World War I.

Arabian Civil War (1919-25), the long civil war
 fought in western Arabia (the Hejaz), between the
 forces of 
IBN SAUD and those of the Hashemite
 king of Arabia, 
HUSSEIN IBN ALI. Hussein
 abdicated in October 1924, the war then being
 carried on by his son Ali; Ibn Saud captured Mecca
 in October 1924, and Medina and Jidda in December
 1925, ending the war.

Arafat, Yasir (1929- ), Palestinian engineer, who
 became a Palestinian Arab student organizer in the
 1950s, was a founder of 
FATAH in 1959 and became
 its leader during the 1960s, and from 1969 has been
 head of the 
PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION
 (PLO) and chief spokesperson for the Palestinian
 Arab nationalist movement. Although deeply engaged
 in conducting a guerrilla and terrorist war against
 Israel since the 1950s, he is also widely regarded
 as a moderate in the Arab world, who since 1974 has
 focused on attempting to negotiate establishment of
 a Palestinian state on the 
WEST BANK of the
 Jordan River. He has publicly disavowed all
 responsibility for terrorism and in 1988 offered to
 help find and eliminate terrorists, but is
 consistently accused of complicity in terrorism by
 the Israelis and from time to time by some Western
 governments. His leadership of the PLO has survived
 all attacks, including expulsions of the PLO from
 Jordan in 1971 and from Lebanon in 1983, as well as
 attacks and secessionist movements by elements
 opposing what they perceived as his moderate
 policies. He addressed the 
UNITED NATIONS in 1974
 and again in 1988, when the UN moved its General
 Assembly meeting to Geneva to hear him after the
 United States refused to admit him.

Aramburu, Pedro (1903-70), Argentinian officer, an
 anti-Peronist who was provisional president
 1955-58, in that period conducting a purge of Juan
 
PERON's supporters and in 1958 conducting free
 elections. He was assassinated in June 1970 by
 Peronist guerrillas.

Arbenz Guzman, Jacobo (1913-71), Guatemalan
 officer, defense minister 1949-1950, and president
 1950-54. His tenure ended with the success of U.S.-
 backed forces in the 
GUATEMALAN CIVIL WAR; he
 then fled into exile.

Arbuckle case, the indictment and trial of film
 star Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle for the alleged rape
 and murder of actress Virginia Rappe during a 1921
 Labor Day weekend party, highly publicized
 afterward as a Hollywood orgy. Arbuckle was tried
 twice before hung juries, and was acquitted at his
 third trial but was then blacklisted by the film
 industry.

Arcadia Conference (December 1941-January 1942), a
 wartime 
ROOSEVELT-CHURCHILL conference held in
 Washington, that identified the war in the west as
 the key American-British priority, with the Pacific
 war to be largely defensive until the
 near-desperate situation in Europe and the Atlantic
 improved; the meeting also set up the Combined
 Chiefs of Staff.

Ardennes, Battle of (August 20-25, 1914), one of
 the World War I Battles of the 
FRONTIERS, in
 which the second major French offensive of World
 War I was stopped with huge losses.

Ardennes, Battle of (May 12-15, 1940), the decisive
 battle of early World War II in the west. The
 German army invaded northern France on May 10,
 moving through the difficult country of the
 Ardennes and reaching the Meuse River on May 12.
 The French were surprised, having expected the main
 German thrust to come from the north, through
 Belgium; their negligible forces in the Ardennes
 were quickly defeated. On May 13, before the French
 could adequately respond, German armor had broken
 through near Sedan and crossed the Meuse; by May
 15, defending French armies had been smashed, the
 Allied armies had been split, and the Germans were
 headed for the Channel ports, which they reached a
 week later, forcing the surrender of the Belgian
 army on May 28, followed by the British evacuation
 at 
DUNKIRK.

Ardennes, Battle of the (December 1944-January
 1945), an alternative name for the 
BATTLE OF THE

 BULGE.

Arendt, Hannah (1906-75), German-American political
 philosopher and writer, who fled Nazi Germany in
 1933. Her major works, including The Origins of
 Totalitarianism (1951), On Revolution (1963), and
 On Violence (1970), dealt with freedom, the loss of
 societal cohesion, and the rise of totalitarianism.


Arias Sanchez, Oscar (1941- ), Costa Rican
 economist, who held several economic planning and
 National Liberation Party posts before becoming
 president of Costa Rica in 1986. He quickly emerged
 as a leading force in the search for Central
 American peace, convening a Latin American summit
 immediately following his inauguration. His "Arias
 Plan" of February 1987, for which he was awarded
 the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize, was a major step toward
 resolution of the 
NICARAGUAN CIVIL WAR.

Arktika, U.S.S.R. ship that was the first surface
 vessel to reach the 
NORTH POLE, in 1977.

Armenian earthquake (December 7, 1988), a massive
 earthquake that struck Soviet Armenia, leveling
 many cities and towns, including the city of
 Leninakan. An estimated 55,000 people were killed
 and 500,000 left homeless. Soviet premier Mikhail
 
GORBACHEV cut short a visit to New York on
 learning of the earthquake. For the first time in
 decades the Soviet Union welcomed help from abroad
 in the aftermath of the disaster, and much foreign
 medical and disaster relief help came.

Armenian Holocaust, the massacres of an estimated
 1-1.5 million Armenians by the Turkish government
 during World War I, most of them dying from famine
 and disease while in Turkish concentration camps in
 the Syrian desert. This enormous set of massacres
 had been preceded by many other massacres of
 Armenians by Turks, notably the Constantinople
 massacres of the late 1870s, the massacres of the
 mid-1890s, in which hundreds of thousands died, and
 the 1909 massacres. Most of the surviving Armenians
 dispersed, large numbers going to what became
 Soviet Armenia and Azerbaijan, and smaller numbers
 to the Levant.

Armstrong, Neil Alden (1930- ), U.S. aviator and
 astronaut, who became the first human to land on
 the Moon. After service during the Korean War,
 Armstrong became a test pilot, then an astronaut.
 In 1966 he was launched in Gemini 8, performing the
 first U. S. docking in space, and on July 20, 1969,
 in command of Apollo 11, he stepped onto the Moon,
 saying as he alighted: "That's one small step for a
 man, one giant leap for mankind."

Army-McCarthy hearings (April-May 1954), 36 days of
 televised hearings, beginning on April, 22, 1954,
 in which Senator Joseph R. 
MCCARTHY accused the
 U.S. Army of covering up subversive activities at
 Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and was himself accused,
 with his counsel, Roy 
COHN, of improperly seeking
 preferential treatment for G. David Schine. These
 hearings were a turning point for McCarthy; Army
 counsel Joseph 
WELCH definitively exposed
 McCarthy's recklessness and inhumanity, a Senate
 censure following in December that effectively
 ended McCarthy's witchhunting career. The national
 distaste for McCarthy and his methods that followed
 the hearings also considerably contributed to the
 subsidence of the anti-Communist hysteria of the
 period.

Arnhem, Battle of (September 1944), establishment
 of a bridgehead across the Rhine on September 17,
 1944, by British and Polish troops, who were held
 there by opposing German forces, losing 7,000 of
 9,000 men involved in the action before retreating;
 part of the failed 
OPERATION MARKET GARDEN.

Arnold, Henry Harley "Hap" (1886-1950), pioneer
 U.S. aviator, who saw service in World War I,
 advocated air force development during the interwar
 period, becoming U.S. Army Air Corps commander in
 1938. He was Army Air Corps chief throughout World
 War II, finishing the war as a five-star general.


Aron, Raymond Claude (1905-83), French journalist,
 historian, and sociologist, who edited the 
FREE

 FRENCH London-based publication La France Libre
 during World War II, and wrote from a left-centrist
 position on politics for Le Figaro 1947-77, while
 also teaching and writing several substantial works
 in politics and sociology.

Arras, Battle of (April 9-15, 1917), World War I
 attack on German forces at Arras, in France, by
 British troops, among them troops of the Canadian
 Corps, in support of the much larger 
NIVELLE

 OFFENSIVE that was to begin April 16. The
 Canadians suffered 11,000 casualties while taking
 
VIMY RIDGE on the first day of the battle;
 combined British and German casualties numbered at
 least 150,000. The attack failed; the German line
 was not broken.

arsenal of democracy, phrase coined by U. S.
 president Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT on December
 29, 1940, in a broadcast to the nation; from "We
 must be the great arsenal of democracy."

artificial heart, mechanical blood-pumping device
 designed to aid or replace-temporarily or
 permanently-an ailing human heart. In the
 mid-1930s, Alexis 
CARREL and Charles 
LINDBERGH
 pioneered in developing a pumping machine,
 popularly called the Lindbergh machine, to supply
 blood to a patient's organs, keeping them alive
 outside the body. This prototype of an external
 artificial heart was further developed by others,
 notably by John H. Gibbon, Jr., who developed a
 heart-lung machine and in 1953 used it keep his
 patient, Cecelia Bavolek, alive during heart
 surgery; and by Denton 
COOLEY, who developed a
 widely used heart-lung bypass machine in 1955. In
 1967 U.S. surgeon Michael 
DE BAKEY made the first
 actual implant of an artificial heart, to aid the
 heart of his patient, who lived for 4 days. In 1969
 Dr. Cooley made the first temporary implant of an
 artificial heart to replace a patient's own heart,
 for 5 days while a donor was sought. The patient,
 Haskell Karp, died the day after the second
 operation. Numerous artificial heart designs were
 tried over the decades. In 1982 a team of surgeons
 led by William DeVries made the first permanent
 implant of a mechanical heart designed by Robert K.
 Jarvik and W. J. Kolff; the patient was Barney
 Clark, who lived with the polyurethane Jarvik-7
 device for 112 days. The survival rate was so poor,
 however, that by the late 1980s replacement was
 being phased out in favor of aiding the heart,
 notably with artificial pump-assist devices or with
 muscle transplanted from elsewhere in the body.

artificial intelligence (AI), so-far theoretical
 machine recreation of the workings of the human
 brain; a possibility seen by a few pre-20th-century
 visionaries, but actively explored only since the
 mid-20th century with the rise of 
COMPUTERS.
 Exploring the question in the 1930s, Alan 
TURING
 developed a theoretical test to distinguish between
 a human brain and a machine. In the 1930s and 1940s
 various scientists, notably Norbert 
WIENER,
 codified ideas about 
FEEDBACK-in essence, the
 ability of a machine to "learn" from experience and
 modify its workings to meet changing conditions.
 Early computer experts, who coined the term
 "artificial intelligence" in the early 1950s, met
 at Dartmouth College in 1956 to begin a concerted
 drive toward achieving it. Though their work
 spawned no electronic brains to approach human ones
 in their manner of operation, especially in their
 ability to deal with imprecise or incomplete data,
 the increasing power and sophistication of
 supercomputers at least made such a possibility
 more realistic. Among the practical offshoots of
 their work has been the development of 
ROBOTS and
 sophisticated diagnostic programs, those used by
 physicians. The anticipated "fifth generation" of
 computers is to be built around ideas of artificial
 intelligence.

ASEAN, the initials of the 
ASSOCIATION OF

 SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS.

Asian flu, worldwide influenza pandemic of 1957-58;
 it affected more people than the 
INFLUENZA

 PANDEMIC of 1918-19 but was less lethal, probably
 because 
ANTIBIOTICS had been developed to treat
 secondary infections.

Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what
 you can do for your country, statement by U.S.
 president John Fitzgerald 
KENNEDY, in his
 Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961.

Asquith, Herbert Henry (1852-1928), British
 barrister, Liberal MP, and cabinet member, who was
 prime minister 1908-16. Asquith was a moderate
 social reformer who found it difficult to deal with
 such major social movements of his time as the rise
 of trade unionism and the campaign for 
WOMAN

 SUFFRAGE, and whose long intraparty feud with
 David 
LLOYD GEORGE seriously damaged the Liberal
 party. He lost his position to Lloyd George in
 1916.

Assad, Hafez al (1928- ), Syrian air force officer,
 who was the leader of the 
BA'ATH PARTY coup of
 1963, then becoming air force commander, and
 minister of defense after the coup of 1966. He took
 power in his own 1970 coup and formally assumed the
 office of president in 1971, becoming sole ruler
 except for a period of ill health in 1983-84. His
 government has maintained a close alliance with the
 Soviet Union, opposed Israel and suffered several
 defeats at their hands, defeated a 
MOSLEM

 BROTHERHOOD revolt at Hama in 1982, intervened in
 force in Lebanon and partially occupied that
 country during the 
LEBANESE WARS, and supported
 Iran during the 
IRAN-IRAQ WAR of the 1980s.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a
 regional association of six non-Communist southeast
 Asian nations, established in 1967, which until the
 mid-1970s was primarily concerned with regional
 political matters but since then has increasingly
 been involved in developing common economic
 cooperation and attempting to correct growing trade
 imbalances.

Astor, Nancy Langhorne (1879-1964), American-born
 Conservative, who became the first woman to sit in
 the British parliament (1919-45). During her career
 she was both a reformer and, with her husband,
 Waldorf Astor, a leader of the right-wing 
CLIVEDEN

 SET, a group that in the 1930s saw 
COMMUNISM as
 a greater menace than 
FASCISM, and sought to
 appease 
HITLER.

Aswan High Dam, a large Egyptian dam near the first
 cataract of the Nile, built in the 1960s with the
 help of Soviet loans after withdrawal of promised
 British and U.S. funding had led Egyptian president
 Gamal Abdel 
NASSER to nationalize the Suez Canal,
 precipitating the 
SUEZ CRISIS and the 
SINAI-SUEZ

 WAR (SECOND ARAB-ISRAELI WAR).

Atanasoff, John Vincent (1903- ), theoretical
 physicist who, with Clifford E. Berry, built the
 world's first fully electronic 
COMPUTER, the ABC
 (
Atanasoff-
Berry 
Computer), 1939-42, after
 more than 2 years of planning. In the confusion of
 wartime Atanasoff obtained no patents for his
 computer, and by 1946 the 
ENIAC, funded heavily
 by the government for military purposes, had been
 built. Atanasoff had spent several days in 1941
 showing his machine to John Mauchly, one of ENIAC's
 creators. But he and most other people did not
 realize the extent of his contribution to modern
 computers until 1973, when, in a lawsuit regarding
 royalties paid to ENIAC's creators, a U.S. federal
 judge voided the ENIAC patent because it was based
 on Atanasoff's work in so many respects.

Atanasoff-Berry Computer, full name of the world's
 first fully electronic computer, built 1939-42 by
 John Vincent 
ATANASOFF and Clifford E. Berry;
 better known as the 
ABC.

Ataturk, Mustapha Kemal (1881-1938), Turkish
 commander at 
GALLIPOLI during World War I, leader
 of the Turkish revolution that deposed the Ottomans
 in the early 1920s, commander of Turkish forces
 during the 
GREEK-TURKISH WAR of 1920-22, and
 founder and first president of the Turkish
 Republic. After Turkish victory in the
 Greek-Turkish War he forced replacement of the very
 severe Treaty of 
SEVRES of 1920 with the much mo
 re favorable Treaty of 
LAUSANNE of 1923. As
 virtual dictator of Turkey, he stifled all internal
 dissent, while at the same time moving Turkey away
 from traditional Islam and toward Western society.
 Originally Mustapha Kemal, in 1933 he renamed
 himself Ataturk, or Father of the Turks.

Athens-Beirut airport hijacking (June 14-30, 1985),
 hijacking of a Trans World Airlines (TWA) Boeing
 727, en route from Athens to Rome with 153
 passengers, by 
ISLAMIC HOLY WAR terrorists. The
 plane flew to Beirut, where the terrorists demanded
 release of over 700 Shiite Moslem Israeli
 prisoners, then to Algiers, and back to Beirut. At
 the first two stops some passengers were released;
 at the third, the terrorists murdered U.S. Navy
 diver Robert Stethem. The plane then flew back to
 Algiers, where the release of a terrorist arrested
 at Athens was negotiated in return for the release
 of more passengers. The plane then flew back to
 Beirut, where 2 weeks of negotiations, in which
 
AMAL leader Nabih
 BERRI took a leading part,
 ultimately led to the freeing of the hostages and
 release of over 300 Arab prisoners by the Israelis.
 All of the hijackers escaped into Beirut.

Atlanta mass murders, killings of 28 young Black
 people, most of them children, in Atlanta during
 the period 1979-81. Prompted by enormous national
 concern, complete with a special grant of $1.5
 million authorized by President Ronald 
REAGAN and
 a visit to Atlanta by Vice-President George 
BUSH,
 a massive hunt for the supposed single murderer
 ensued. Wayne B. Williams of Atlanta was indicted
 for two of the murders on July 17, 1981; he was
 convicted of both on February 27, 1982, and
 subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment.
 Whether he committed all of the murders is as yet
 unknown; however, the murders stopped after his
 arrest and imprisonment.

Atlantic, Battle of the, in both World Wars, the
 battle of the British and American navies against
 German 
SUBMARINE WARFARE. In both wars the German
 submarine fleet was ultimately defeated but not
 without enormous Allied shipping losses.

Atlantic Charter (1941), the statement of war aims
 issued by 
ROOSEVELT and 
CHURCHILL after their
 wartime conference off Newfoundland August 9-12,
 1941, which affirmed joint American-British desires
 for world peace, freedom, and self-determination.
 The Atlantic Charter was a powerful ideological
 motivator during the war; much of it was included
 in the 
UNITED NATIONS Charter.

Atlantic City Conference, meeting of most of the
 leaders of organized crime in the United States,
 including Al 
CAPONE, Charles "Lucky" 
LUCIANO,
 Frank Costello, Meyer Lansky, Louis "Lepke"
 Buchalter, and many others. Held at the President
 Hotel in Atlantic City in May 1929, the conference
 resulted in an agreement to set up the first
 national crime syndicate.

Atlantic Wall, the series of German fortifications
 along the shoreline of Western Europe, aimed at
 barring invasion from the sea, which little impeded
 the 
NORMANDY invasion on 
D-DAY, June 6, 1944.


Atlantis, fourth of the U.S. 
SPACE SHUTTLES,
 launched initially in 1985; on its third flight, in
 1989, it was used to launch the first space probe
 from a shuttle, the Magellan, headed toward
 
VENUS.

atomic bomb (A-bomb), explosive device employing
 
NUCLEAR FISSION, used to destroy 
HIROSHIMA and
 
NAGASAKI, Japan, on August 6 and August 9, 1945,
 quickly bringing World War II to a close and
 beginning the period of fear for the survival of
 life on Earth that is the Nuclear Age. Concern as
 to possible German development of the bomb led
 Albert 
EINSTEIN and others to urge President
 Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT to authorize accelerated
 American development of the bomb. The result was
 the 
MANHATTAN PROJECT, 1942-45, which produced
 the first atomic bomb, exploded in a test
 code-named
 TRINITY at 
ALAMOGORDO, New Mexico,
 on July 16, 1945. Though the atomic bomb ended the
 war without a costly invasion of Japan, many
 people-including many who worked on the bomb-soon
 began to fear its power and urge its strict
 control. Despite the fears, nuclear technology
 spread: the Soviet Union had its own atomic bomb by
 1949, Britain by 1952, France by 1960, and China by
 1964. By 1949, the atomic bomb was being used as a
 triggering device for the far more powerful
 
HYDROGEN BOMB (H-bomb).

atomic clock, device that uses atomic or molecular
 oscillations to keep time, far more accurately than
 conventional timekeeping devices; the first was
 built by the U.S. Bureau of National Standards in
 1948, using ammonia molecules. The Bureau later
 developed an even more accurate clock, using cesium
 133, and popularly called the cesium clock; its
 oscillations were adopted as the new international
 standard "atomic second" in 1964. By 1979 U.S.
 scientists had developed a hydrogen 
MASER clock
 that they calculated could, if kept in a constant
 environment, run 50 million years without losing a
 second.

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), U.S. agency to
 regulate development of nuclear weapons-the 
ATOMIC

 BOMB and the 
HYDROGEN BOMB-and nuclear energy,
 whether from 
NUCLEAR FISSION or 
NUCLEAR FUSION;
 established by the 1946 Atomic Energy Act to
 replace the
 MANHATTAN PROJECT. In a major
 controversy the AEC in 1953 removed J. Robert
 
OPPENHEIMER, former head of the Manhattan
 Project, from chairmanship of its General Advisory
 Committee. From 1954 the AEC allowed private
 companies to work in atomic production and research
 under government supervision. The AEC was disbanded
 in 1974 and replaced with two agencies: the Energy
 Research and Development Administration (ERDA) and
 the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).

atomic pile, early alternate name for a 
NUCLEAR

 REACTOR, more specifically the conglomerate of
 material massed for the 
NUCLEAR FISSION reaction.


atomic structure, basic model of the atom as a
 positively charged central 
NUCLEUS, including one
 or more uncharged 
NEUTRONS and one or more
 positively charged 
PROTONS, surrounded by rings
 or a "cloud" of negatively charged spinning
 
ELECTRONS. In 1904 Joseph 
THOMSON, discoverer
 of the electron, first suggested that electrons sat
 in orbits around a positively charged sphere; and
 Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka posed the idea
 of the central nucleus, which was then rejected as
 impossible. But in 1911 Ernest 
RUTHERFORD, with
 Hans 
GEIGER and Ernest Marsden, developed the
 first practical nucleus-centered model (in 1914
 Rutherford also discovered the 
PROTON). Two years
 later Niels 
BOHR modified the atomic model,
 drawing on Max 
PLANCK'S QUANTUM THEORY to suggest
 that electrons circle the nucleus in fixed
 concentric orbits or "shells," emitting energy in
 discrete units as they jumped from orbit to orbit.
 Also in 1913, British physicist Henry Gwyn Jeffreys
 Moseley, using
 X-RAY analysis, first equated the
 atomic number assigned to each element on
 chemistry's periodic charts with the electric
 charge on an atom's nucleus. In 1925 Wolfgang
 
PAULI posited that each electron occupied a
 unique state in an atom, an idea called the
 
EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE; in the same year
 Dutch-American physicists Samuel Goudsmit and
 George Eugene Uhlenbeck contributed the idea that
 electrons must have an intrinsic spin; and in 1932
 James Chadwick discovered the 
NEUTRON. These
 completed the general picture of the atom at this
 level, but by the 1950s physicists had found that
 some of these atomic elements were themselves
 further subdivisible into even smaller 
PARTICLES.


Attica Prison riot, hostage-taking and seizure of
 part of the Attica, New York, state prison on
 September 9, 1971, by approximately 1,000 inmates.
 After 4 days of negotiations, and spurred by
 charges of atrocities being committed by the
 inmates upon their hostages, 1,500 police stormed
 and took the prison, killing 29 inmates and 9
 hostages, who were caught in police crossfire.
 Later investigation indicated that the atrocity
 reports had little or no factual basis.

Attlee, Clement Richard (1883-1967), British
 barrister, who in 1905 took up the cause of the
 poor, went to live in the slums of London's East
 End, and became Labour MP for Limehouse. He was
 leader of the British Labour Party 1935-55, a
 member of Winston 
CHURCHILL'S wartime coalition
 cabinet, and postwar prime minister 1945-51. In the
 1930s he supported anti-Fascist causes such as the
 Loyalist side in the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR, and
 opposed 
APPEASEMENT. As prime minister he carried
 out Labour's nationalization of much of Britain's
 basic industry and establishment of the 
NATIONAL

 HEALTH SERVICE while also presiding over the
 dissolution of much of the British Empire.

Auchinleck, Claude (1884-1981), British officer,
 who served in India, saw action in World War I, and
 again served in India during the interwar period. A
 field marshal during World War II, he scored early
 North African successes as British Middle Eastern
 commander in 1941, but was relieved of command
 after a series of German victories, returning to
 command British forces in India.

Aung San (1914-47), Burmese nationalist leader, who
 fought with the Japanese during World War II, then
 organized and led the Burmese National Army revolt
 against the Japanese in March 1945, going over into
 an anti-Japanese guerrilla war on the side of the
 
ALLIES. In 1947, after British withdrawal plans
 from Burma were announced, he became prime minister
 of the Burmese government then in formation, but
 was assassinated, with five members of his cabinet,
 on July 19, 1947, and was succeeded as prime
 minister by U 
NU.

Auschwitz-Birkenau (Oswicim), a German
 
CONCENTRATION CAMP complex in central Poland,
 near Cracow, opened in 1940, at which during the
 period 1942-44 at least 2 million people were
 murdered by the Nazis, most of them from Poland and
 the Soviet Union and mostly Jews. The estimates of
 the numbers of those murdered may be on the low
 side.

Australia (Commonwealth of Australia), in 1901, the
 British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland,
 South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western
 Australia, which then became states within the new
 Commonwealth of Australia, a member of the
 
COMMONWEALTH.

Austria (Republic of Austria), until November 1918
 part of the Austro-Hungarian empire, afterward a
 republic. In 1934, after socialist-fascist clashes,
 Austria became a fascist dictatorship on the
 Italian model under prime minister Engelbert
 
DOLLFUSS; his successor, Kurt von 
SCHUSCHNIGG,
 ceded Austria to the Nazis in the 
ANSCHLUSS of
 1938, and the country was then incorporated into
 Germany until 1945. The republic was revived in
 1945; it was led by highly controversial former
 
UNITED NATIONS president Kurt 
WALDHEIM from
 1986.

Autumn Harvest Uprisings (September 1927),
 unsuccessful armed rural revolts led by 
MAO

 ZEDONG in the Yangtse River valley that marked the
 beginning of the turn from the Communist strategy
 of urban revolution in China to the peasant-based
 strategy that would ultimately take the Chinese
 Communist party to power.

Axis Sally (Mildred Gillars; 1900-1988), American
 who became a Nazi broadcaster in Europe during
 World War II and was popular listening for American
 soldiers, who paid little attention to her message
 but rather liked her song selection, especially the
 German song "Lili Marlene." She was convicted of
 treason in 1949 and was imprisoned for 12 years.

Axis, The, the German-Japanese-Italian alliance
 that, with its lesser allies, fought the 
ALLIES
 in World War II. Benito 
MUSSOLINI supplied the
 name in a 1936 speech, calling his recently
 concluded secret treaty with 
HITLER an "axis"
 around which like-minded powers could circulate.

Ayub Khan, Mohammad (1907-1974), Pakistani officer
 in the British army, who saw service in Burma in
 World War II and became commander in chief of the
 Pakistani army in 1951. On October 7, 1960, he
 became chief martial law administrator when
 President Iskander Mirza took dictatorial power; on
 October 27 he took power from Mirza. He held power
 until March 1969, when growing economic and
 political problems, together with the growth of
 domestic opposition, forced his resignation. Then
 his army commander in chief, General Agha Mohammad
 Yahya Khan, became chief martial law administrator
 and took dictatorial power, and Ayub Khan retired
 from public life.

Azerbaijani-Armenian Civil War (1988- ), in
 February 1988, a longstanding dispute between the
 Soviet republics of Armenia and Azerbaijan, over
 the Christian Armenian enclave of
 
NAGORNO-KARABAGH, in largely Moslem Azerbaijan,
 became an armed conflict. Armenia demanded
 sovereignty; nationalist Azerbaijanis responded
 with armed attacks on Armenian populations in
 Azerbaijan. In Sumgait, after at least 30 were
 killed, Soviet troops restored order. The dispute
 continued and grew, with large demonstrations in
 both republics. Soviet troops intervened again in
 November 1988 and August 1989, as Azerbaijani
 nationalists attacked Armenians, forced an
 estimated 100,000 from their homes, and blockaded
 Armenia, while a border war developed between the
 two republics. In January 1990, the conflict grew
 even further; characterizing it as very nearly a
 civil war, Soviet forces in divisional strength
 moved in, took Baku by force, and reimposed order,
 while negotiations proceeded.

Baader-Meinhof Gang (Red Army Faction), German
 Federal Republic anarchist-terrorist guerrilla
 group, organized primarily by Andreas Baader, that
 carried out a substantial series of bombings,
 robberies, and murders from 1968 to 1972. Baader
 was imprisoned in 1968 but escaped with the help of
 Ulrike Meinhof, a journalist, who then joined and
 worked with him until their capture in June 1972.
 In May 1976, Meinhof, then on trial, was found dead
 in her cell, having allegedly committed suicide;
 mass demonstrations charging police murder
 followed. In October 1977, Baader and two other
 group members, having been convicted and
 imprisoned, were found dead in prison, as well,
 also allegedly having committed suicide. The Red
 Army Faction continued its terrorist course.

Ba'ath Party (Arab Socialist Renaissance party),
 organization founded as part of a socialist,
 pan-Arab movement in the mid-1930s and formally
 organized into a political party in 1947, its first
 strength being in Syria, although Ba'ath groups
 were also organized in many other Arab countries.
 The Syrian Ba'ath party came to power in the coup
 of 1963; since 1970 it has been led by Hafez
 al-
ASSAD. The Iraqi Ba'ath party, a rival group
 within the Ba'ath movement, came to power in the
 coup of 1968; since 1971 it has been led by Saddam
 
HUSSEIN. Ba'ath groups continue to operate in
 Lebanon, Jordan, and other Arab countries but have
 achieved no major successes.

Badoglio, Pietro (1871-1956), Italian officer, who
 became chief of staff after World War I, was Benito
 
MUSSOLINI'S chief of staff in 1925, and was a
 marshal of the Italian army from 1926. He was
 commander-in-chief of Italian forces in the
 
ETHIOPIAN-ITALIAN WAR and again in 1940, but he
 lost his post after the major Italian defeat in
 Greece. In 1943 he succeeded Mussolini as Italian
 premier, signed an armistice with the Allies on
 September 3, 1943, and resigned in 1944.

Baghdad, Fall of (March 11, 1917), World War I
 taking of Baghdad, by British forces, which had
 retaken 
KUT (February 22-23), advancing along the
 Tigris River. Subsequently, British forces secured
 Mesopotamia.

Bahamas (Commonwealth of the Bahamas), until 1973 a
 British colony, with increasing self-government
 from 1964; it became an independent member of the
 
COMMONWEALTH on July 10, 1973. The country was
 led by Prime Minister Lynden Oscar Pindling from
 1967.

Bahrain, until 1971 a British protectorate; on
 August 15, 1971, it became an independent state,
 ruled by Sheikh Salman ibn Hamad Al Khalifa.
 Bahrain is closely associated with Saudi Arabia and
 the United States.

Baird, John Logie, (1888-1946), Scottish inventor,
 who in 1926 demonstrated the first practical
 
TELEVISION in London and 2 years later made the
 first trans-Atlantic television transmission and
 demonstrated the first color television. Baird's
 system was a mechanical one, however, and though
 briefly used by the British Broadcasting
 Corporation (
BBC) in 1936, it was soon replaced
 by an all-
ELECTRONIC television system.

Baker, Howard (1925- ), U.S. lawyer, Tennessee
 Republican senator 1966-85, minority leader of the
 Senate 1976-80, and majority leader 1980-85. An
 unsuccessful candidate for the Republican
 presidential nomination in 1980, he resigned from
 the Senate in 1984, planning to run again for the
 1988 nomination. Instead, he agreed to succeed
 Donald 
REGAN as President Ronald 
REAGAN'S chief
 of staff in 1987, serving until July 1988.

Baker, James A., III (1930- ), U.S. lawyer, from
 1970 closely associated with George 
BUSH in Texas
 Republican politics. He was an undersecretary of
 commerce 1975-76, managed Bush's unsuccessful 1980
 presidential campaign, and was Ronald 
REAGAN'S
 chief of staff 1981-85; he then swapped posts with
 Donald 
REGAN, becoming secretary of the treasury
 (1985-88). He resigned in August 1988 to manage
 Bush's successful presidential campaign and became
 secretary of state in the first Bush cabinet.

Baker v. Carr (1962), a landmark U.S. Supreme Court
 decision striking down discriminatory electoral
 apportionment practices, which forced massive
 reapportionment throughout the United States.

Bakke case (Regents of the University of California
 v. Bakke, 1978), a landmark U.S. Supreme Court
 decision requiring the admission to medical school
 of a qualified student who had been refused
 admission because of a quota system explicitly
 favoring certain minority students. The decision
 therefore invalidated key aspects of many
 educational special admissions programs throughout
 the United States.

Bakker-PTL scandal, the 1987 scandal that followed
 exposure of unbecoming sexual conduct on the part
 of the Reverend Jim 
BAKKER, a star television
 evangelist broadcasting on his own PTL (Praise The
 Lord) network. Bakker resigned his PTL position in
 March 1987 after being accused of having had sex
 with Jessica Hahn in 1980 and then buying Hahn's
 silence in 1985. The public accusations were
 generated, at least in part, by TV evangelist Jimmy
 
SWAGGART, who was himself involved in a 1988
 sexual scandal. Bakker passed PTL to another
 televangelist, Jerry 
FALWELL, later trying and
 failing to regain control. Falwell, after trying to
 reclaim the PTL enterprise, ultimately gave up, PTL
 then going into bankruptcy. In May 1988, Bakker was
 dismissed from his Assemblies of God ministry amid
 charges of bisexuality. Later in 1988 he and his
 wife, Tammy Faye Bakker, had little success in
 attempting to resume their religious broadcasting
 careers. On October 5, 1989, he was convicted on 24
 counts of fraud and conspiracy, resulting in a
 45-year jail sentence.

Balaguer, Joaquin (1907- ), Dominican Republic
 lawyer and diplomat, who held a series of posts
 under dictator Rafael 
TRUJILLO, including that of
 president of the republic in 1960. After Trujillo's
 assassination he left the country, returned during
 the 
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC CIVIL WAR, and was
 subsequently elected to the presidency as the
 moderate candidate of the country's commercial and
 military elites. He defeated Juan 
BOSCH in 1966,
 remained president until 1978, and came back at the
 age of 78 to win the presidency again in 1985.

Balch, Emily Greene (1867-1961), U.S. social
 worker, teacher, and peace activist who worked with
 Jane 
ADDAMS at 
HULL HOUSE and worked and wrote
 on immigration and child welfare matters starting
 in the 1890s. A pacifist, she opposed U.S.
 participation in World War I, and for that
 opposition she lost her teaching position at
 Wellesley College in 1918. In 1919 she became a
 founder and first secretary of the 
WOMEN'S

 INTERNATIONAL LEAGUE FOR PEACE AND FREEDOM. Her
 work as a peace activist remained a primary concern
 for rest of her life; she was co-recipient of the
 Nobel Peace Prize in 1946.

Baldwin, James Arthur (1924-87), U.S. writer and
 Black civil rights leader, who powerfully attacked
 racism in such novels and essays as his
 semiautobiographical Go Tell It on the Mountain
 (1953), Notes of a Native Son (1955), and The Fire
 Next Time (1963).

Baldwin, Roger Nash (1884-1981), U.S. social
 worker, pacifist, and civil libertarian, director
 of the American Union Against Militarism during
 World War I, who was imprisoned during 1918 as a
 conscientious objector. In 1920 he was a founder of
 the 
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION (ACLU) and was
 its first director, 1920-50, and then its chairman,
 1950-55.

Baldwin, Stanley (1867-1947), three-time prime
 minister of Great Britain (1923; 1924-29; 1936-37),
 a Conservative 
MP, and then cabinet minister.
 With Bonar 
LAW he led his party out of the
 coalition with 
LLOYD GEORGE in 1922, was Law's
 chancellor of the exchequer, and became prime
 minister in 1923 after Law resigned due to illness.
 Defeated in January 1924, he came back as prime
 minister in November. He broke the 
GENERAL STRIKE
 of 1926, followed up with the repressive Trade
 Disputes Act, and survived in office until June
 1929. He came back as prime minister once again, in
 June 1935, but, faced with international issues he
 found difficult, he did nothing while Italy invaded
 
ETHIOPIA, Germany marched into the 
RHINELAND,
 and Germany and Italy rehearsed for World War II in
 the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR. He did take a few small
 steps toward British rearmament in response to
 German and Italian aggression and also forced the
 abdication of 
EDWARD VIII-who chose Wallis
 
SIMPSON over his crown-handling that matter
 smoothly. He retired in May 1937, to be succeeded
 by Neville 
CHAMBERLAIN.

Balfour, Arthur James (1848-1930), British diplomat
 and political leader, who was prime minister
 1902-05 and whose 55-year-long public career
 included 48 years as a Conservative 
MP
 (1874-1922), several cabinet posts, and an
 important international role after World War I. He
 authored the 
BALFOUR DECLARATION, issued by the
 British government in 1917, while he was foreign
 secretary; it supported, with important
 qualifications, the formation of a Jewish homeland
 in Palestine.

Balfour Declaration (November 2, 1917), a letter
 issued by then British foreign secretary Arthur
 
BALFOUR, stating that it was the policy of the
 British government to try to establish a Jewish
 homeland in Palestine, provided that nothing be
 done to harm the civil and religious rights of
 non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights
 and political status of Jews in other countries.
 This declaration became the official position of
 the 
ALLIES at the 
PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE of
 1919, which resulted in the Treaty of 
VERSAILLES
 and the establishment of the British mandate over
 Palestine.

Balkan campaign of 1944-45 (October 1944-May 1945),
 series of late World War II engagements in which
 advancing Soviet forces took Belgrade on October
 20, 1944, crossed the Danube in late November, and
 besieged Budapest, taking that city on February 13
 and Vienna on April 15, then moving up the Danube
 Valley to meet the Americans.

Balkan League, the 1912 alliance of Bulgaria,
 Greece, and Serbia. Balkan League forces moving
 against the Turks began the 1912-13 
BALKAN WARS.


Balkan Wars (1912-13), two wars involving Balkan
 countries, part of the run-up to World War I.
 Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia formed the Balkan
 League in 1912; Montenegro also was associated with
 the League. The First Balkan War began on October
 17, 1912, when Balkan League armies totaling
 300,000-400,000 men attacked Turkish forces almost
 as large in Macedonia and Thrace, winning a
 decisive victory at Monastir, capturing Salonika,
 besieging Constantinople, and ultimately taking
 Adrianople and Yannina. Threatened with a general
 European war, the major powers forced both sides to
 make peace; at the Treaty of London, May 30, 1913,
 the new nation of Albania was created, and the
 Balkan League countries divided up almost all of
 what was left of European Turkey. But Bulgaria was
 dissatisfied and early in June began the Second
 Balkan War with surprise attacks on Serbia and
 Greece. In mid-July, Rumania and Turkey came into
 the war, against Bulgaria. Bulgaria was defeated
 and lost the gains made in the First Balkan War at
 the Treaty of Bucharest, August 10, 1913.

ballistic missile, self-powered, pilotless, flying
 vehicle, equipped with explosives, often nuclear,
 the bomb-carrying tip called a warhead. Those for
 long range (over 5,500 km) are 
INTERCONTINENTAL

 BALLISTIC MISSILES; those for medium range are
 
INTERMEDIATE RANGE BALLISTIC MISSILES (IRBMs) or
 Intermediate-range Nuclear Missiles, the subject of
 the 1988 INF Treaty; those with multiple warheads
 are 
MULTIPLE INDEPENDENTLY TARGETABLE REENTRY

 VEHICLES (MIRVs); and those designed to intercept
 and destroy other ballistic missiles are
 
ANTIBALLISTIC MISSILES (ABMs).

balloon angioplasty, non-surgical alternative to a
 
CORONARY BYPASS operation, to deal with clogged
 arteries. The technique, developed in 1977 by
 Andreas R. Gruentzig, involves threading tubes into
 arteries and inflating "balloons" at the ends to
 compress the material clogging the arteries.

Baltic Campaign of 1944-45 (October 1944-May 1945),
 attack on German forces in Latvia by advancing
 Soviet armies, which soon pushed through to the
 Baltic and then moved forward into East Prussia and
 along the Baltic coast. By mid-April, Soviet forces
 had taken Danzig (Gdansk), Konigsberg, and much of
 the Baltic coast, the German navy having evacuated
 much of the northern army and over a million
 civilians from those areas.

bamboo curtain, a 
COLD WAR term describing the
 isolation of the People's Republic of 
CHINA from
 much of the Western world, although inapplicable to
 its relationships with the countries of the 
THIRD

 WORLD and the Soviet bloc. The term fell into
 disuse during the late 1960s.

Banda, Hastings Kamuzu (1902- ), Malawi political
 leader, who became head of his country's
 independence movement in 1958 on his return home
 from decades abroad. He became prime minister of
 newly independent Malawi in 1963 and president in
 1966, having himself declared president-for-life of
 his one-party state in 1971. As president, he
 fostered a multiracial state, although maintaining
 such cordial relations with South Africa as to
 rouse the anger of neighboring Black African
 countries, which forced him in the late 1980s to
 take a somewhat harder line toward the South
 African government.

Bandaranaike, Sirimavo (Sirimavo Ratwatte; 1916- ),
 Sri Lankan political leader, who became prime
 minister of Ceylon (Sri Lanka from 1972) and the
 world's first woman prime minister (1960-65;
 1970-77), succeeding her assassinated husband,
 Solomon Bandaranaike (1899-1959). A socialist, she
 pursued a program of nationalization, although one
 not radical enough for the People's Liberation
 Front, which in 1971 conducted a brief,
 unsuccessful insurgency. In 1980, then out of
 power, she was expelled from parliament by her
 opponents.

Bandung Conference (April 1955), an international
 conference sponsored by President 
SUKARNO at
 Bandung, Indonesia, and attended by the
 representatives of 29 African and Asian nations,
 with observers from several other countries. The
 Bandung meeting prefigured the modern 
NONALIGNED

 MOVEMENT, focusing on common action against
 colonialism and racism within the context of a
 neutralist position regarding the 
COLD WAR.

Bangladesh (People's Republic of Bangladesh), until
 1947 part of East Bengal in British colonial India.
 With the 1947 partition of India into India and
 Pakistan, largely Moslem East Bengal became part of
 Pakistan. In 1971 a 17-year struggle for autonomy,
 led by Mujibur 
RAHMAN, culminated in the
 
BANGLADESH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE and the
 
INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR OF 1971. On December 16, 1971,
 Bangladesh became an independent state, led by
 Prime Minister Rahman.

Bangladesh War of Independence (March-December
 1971), conflict that resulted when the Awami
 League, led by Sheikh Mujibur 
RAHMAN, won the
 December 1970 Pakistani elections and the ruling
 military government of Pakistan refused to convene
 the new national assembly; in response, a massive
 civil disobedience campaign paralyzed East
 Pakistan. The government then outlawed the Awami
 League and undertook repressive action. Rahman
 declared East Pakistan independent on March 26, as
 an armed insurrection broke out. Insurgent forces
 were defeated by the Pakistani army within 6 weeks,
 with tens of thousands of insurgent dead and an
 estimated 6-10 million refugees fleeing to India.
 The insurgency continued as an Indian-supported
 guerrilla war from bases in India. On December 3,
 with the outbreak of the 
INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR OF

 1971, strong Indian forces invaded East Pakistan,
 taking Dacca in 2 weeks, along with 90,000
 Pakistani troops, and then installing the
 Bangladesh government-in-exile as the legitimate
 government of the new country. Rahman, who had been
 imprisoned in Pakistan since the March outbreak of
 the insurrection, returned early in 1972 to become
 first prime minister of Bangladesh.

bank holiday (1933), the temporary closing of all
 U.S. banks by President Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT on
 March 6, 1933, the day after he took office, to
 forestall a developing banking system crisis. Bank
 reopenings began on March 13, after Roosevelt's
 first 
FIRESIDE CHAT, a radio address successfully
 reassuring the nation that the banking system was
 sound.

Banting, Frederick Grant (1891-1941), leader of the
 team that in 1921 discovered 
INSULIN and
 developed the basic treatment of diabetes.

Bao Dai (Nguyen Vinh Thuy; 1913- ), the puppet
 ruler of Vietnam for the French (1926-40), the
 Japanese (1940-45), and the French again (1949-55),
 who was put aside by 
NGO DINH DIEM in 1955.

Barbados, until 1966, a British colony. The country
 became an independent state and member of the
 
COMMONWEALTH on November 30, 1966. It was
 initially led by Errol Walton 
BARROW, prime
 minister from 1961 to 1976.

Barbarossa, Operation, the code name of the German
 plan to invade the Soviet Union in 1941. The
 invasion began on June 22, 1941, on a front running
 from the Black Sea to the Baltic. By late July, the
 German central front armies had taken Minsk and
 Smolensk, with Soviet losses that included almost
 400,000 prisoners, over 4,000 tanks, and thousands
 of artillery pieces. By late September the German
 southern armies also had taken Kiev and with it an
 estimated 600,000 more prisoners and much armor. By
 late October, Leningrad was besieged, Sevastopol
 was threatened, over half a million more prisoners
 had been taken, and the Germans were moving on
 Moscow, ultimately reaching within 15 miles of the
 city.  But they went no farther; mud had slowed
 them down in late autumn, winter made the advance
 far more difficult, and the Soviets threw powerful
 new forces into the line in early December, then
 going on the offensive. Barbarossa had failed.

Barbie, Klaus (1913- ), World War II Nazi war
 criminal, an 
SS officer in Holland 1940-41 and in
 France 1942-44. He committed war crimes against
 Dutch Jews in Holland and was SS commanding in
 officer in Lyon, France, there committing a series
 of major war crimes that earned him the name
 "Butcher of Lyon." He went into hiding after the
 war, then was employed by U.S. counterintelligence,
 1947-51, and was assisted by the United States in
 his subsequent escape to South America, where he
 lived as Klaus Altmann until his capture in Bolivia
 in 1983. He was ultimately brought to trial in
 1987, convicted of some of his major crimes, and
 sentenced to life imprisonment.

Barcelona riots (May 3-7, 1937), factional fighting
 between anarchist and Communist Spanish Republican
 forces in Barcelona; after 2 days of indecision the
 Republican government decisively intervened against
 the anarchists. The anarchist viewpoint, charging
 that the sequence of events was part of a Communist
 campaign to destroy all opposition within the
 republic, was put strongly in George 
ORWELL's
 Homage to Catalonia. An estimated 400-1,000 deaths
 and 2,000-4,000 other casualties resulted. Whatever
 the motives of the participants, the riots
 seriously weakened the Spanish Republic.

Barcelona, Fall of (January 26, 1939), collapse
 that signaled the effective end of the 
SPANISH

 CIVIL WAR. With the fall of Barcelona, large-scale
 Republican resistance in northern Spain ended;
 Madrid and Valencia surrendered in March, ending
 the war.

bar code, series of black and white stripes,
 representing 
BINARY DIGITS, to be read by a
 
LASER scanner, with the encoded information
 processed by a computer. In 1973 the grocery
 industry of the United States first put the bar
 code to widespread use, calling it the Universal
 Product Code (UPC). Use of the bar code eliminated
 the need for repetitive keying of product
 information with its potential for errors;
 inventory tracking and price changing became far
 more efficient. By the 1980s bar codes were being
 used in a wide range of areas, including
 warehouses, hospitals, libraries, and the miltary.


Barco Vargas, Virgilio (1921- ), Colombian public
 official and political leader, who held a long
 series of appointive and elective positions from
 1943. In 1985 he became head of the Liberal party
 and president of Colombia. His presidency was
 marked by severe internal unrest, including a
 continuing left-wing insurgency, the emergence of
 right-wing 
DEATH SQUADS, the growing influence of
 the international drug cartels, and pressure from
 the army, which threatened to take control of an
 increasingly fragmented country.

Barkley, Alben William (1877-1956), U.S. lawyer, a
 Kentucky Democratic congressman (1913-27) and
 four-term senator (1927-49), who as majority leader
 of the Senate (1937-47) was a key 
NEW DEAL
 legislative figure. He was Harry S. 
TRUMAN'S vice
 president (1949-53), playing a considerably larger
 legislative and advisory role than most vice-
 presidents before or since. He was reelected to the
 senate in 1954, dying in office in 1956.

Barnard, Christiaan Neethling (1922- ), South
 African surgeon who performed the first human
 
HEART TRANSPLANT. Learning 
OPEN-HEART SURGERY
 techniques in America, Barnard introduced them to
 his homeland and went on to develop them further
 through operations on dogs; he also designed
 artificial heart valves. He made the first
 transplant of a human heart on December 3, 1967;
 the patient, Louis Washansky, died of pneumonia 18
 days later, but Barnard had set the stage for
 further improvements.

Barrow, Clyde, U.S. murderer and armed robber of
 the early 1930s, with Bonnie 
PARKER partnered as
 "Bonnie and Clyde."

Barth, Karl (1886-1968), Swiss Protestant
 theologian, who formulated a "theology of crisis"
 to deal with the horrors of 20th-century wars,
 beginning with his 1919 Epistle to the Romans. A
 sharp critic of Nazism, he lost his professorial
 post at Bonn for refusing to take a loyalty oath to
 
HITLER; he then transferred to Basel, where in
 1934, with Martin 
NIEMOLLER and others, he
 organized the Synod of Barmen, an anti-Nazi church
 coalition. After World War II he strongly urged
 reconciliation with Germany and criticized the
 
IRON CURTAIN and the use of the 
ATOMIC BOMB.

Barthes, Roland (1915-80), French philosopher
 linked with 
STRUCTURALISM and a key figure in
 semiology, the study of cultural phenomena studied
 as signs, quite apart from their content.

Baruch, Bernard (1870-1965), U.S. stockbroker, who
 moved into public service during World War I,
 becoming chairman of the War Industries Board and
 then an economic advisor at the 
PARIS PEACE

 CONFERENCE. He continued to advise Amerian
 presidents of both parties informally on economic
 matters until the early 1960s, also becoming a
 popular figure who gained a good deal of media
 attention.

Barzani, Mustafa al- (1901-79), the leader of the
 
KURDISH NATIONAL MOVEMENT in Iraq from the 1930s
 until his death; he was the younger brother of
 Sheik Ahmad al-Barzani, head of the Barzanis, the
 leading clan in the Kurdish national movement. He
 led the armed forces of the short-lived (1945-46)
 Kurdish Republic in northern Iran, then fled to the
 Soviet Union, which had backed that government. He
 returned to Iraq in 1959, led the long (1960-70)
 Kurdish revolt in Iraq, and resumed that revolt in
 1974; it continued after his death.

Bastogne, Battle of (December 19, 1944-January 2,
 1945), attack during the Battle of the 
BULGE in
 which German forces surrounded the U.S. 82nd
 Airborne and 101st Airborne divisions holding
 Bastogne. The Americans held firm under attack by
 much superior forces until relieved by George
 
PATTON's American Third Army on December 26. The
 combined American forces held Bastogne for another
 week while the Germans continued to attack; then
 general German withdrawal began. It was at Bastogne
 that U.S. general Anthony C. McAuliffe responded
 "Nuts!" to a German ultimatum to surrender.

Basutoland, the former name of 
LESOTHO (Kingdom
 of Lesotho), which was a British protectorate until
 becoming an independent nation on October 4, 1966.


Bataan Death March (April 1942), the long march,
 early in World War II, of captured and brutally
 mistreated U.S. and Philippine soldiers, many of
 them wounded and ill, to their prison camp after
 their surrender to the Japanese invaders of the
 Philippines.

Bates, Daisy Gatson (1922- ), Little Rock,
 Arkansas, newspaper publisher and civil rights
 leader. As president of the Arkansas chapter of the
 
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF

 COLORED PEOPLE (NAACP), in 1957 she led in the
 campaign to desegregate Little Rock Central High
 School.

bathyscape, submersible craft with a pressurized
 cabin, used for underwater observations; associated
 with a mother ship but (unlike the 
BATHYSPHERE)
 not linked to it by a vulnerable cable. First
 developed by Auguste 
PICCARD in 1948, the
 bathyscape was improved upon by others in the
 1950s, especially Jacques 
COUSTEAU, who added
 
JET PROPULSION and helped create versions usable
 for long-term underwater stays. By 1965 Cousteau's
 aquanautic team had spent 23 days in a bathyscape
 below the Mediterranean, and in the same year a
 U.S. Navy team spent 45 days underwater off
 California in the Sealab II project.

bathysphere, nonnavigable, submersible craft
 suspended by a cable from a mother ship, used for
 underwater observations; developed in 1930 by U.S.
 zoologist William 
BEEBE and engineer Otis Barton.
 Because the cable could easily become entangled or
 snap, the bathysphere was dangerous for underwater
 observers and was largely replaced in the 1950s by
 the 
BATHYSCAPE.

Batista y Zaldivar, Fulgencio (1901-73), Cuban
 soldier, president of Cuba 1940-44 and dictator
 1952-59, whose corrupt government was easily
 toppled by Fidel 
CASTRO'S  guerrilla army when it
 came down from the Sierra Maestra in October 1958.
 Batista fled Cuba on January 1, 1959; Castro's
 forces entered Havana on January 8 without
 opposition.

Bavarian Communist Republic, short-lived Communist
 state set up in April 1919, which was quickly
 smashed by the right-wing German 
FREIKORPS, then
 growing in strength after its January defeat of the
 
SPARTACIST rising in Berlin and the subsequent
 Freikorps assassinations of Rosa 
LUXEMBURG and
 Karl 
LIEBKNECHT.

Bay of Pigs invasion (April 17, 1961), amphibious
 landings at Cuba's Bahia de los Cochinos (Bay of
 Pigs) by an estimated 1,200-1,500 Cuban exiles
 armed, trained, and transported by the U.S.
 
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA). President John
 F. 
KENNEDY, who otherwise approved the action,
 withheld the air cover promised by the CIA. A
 hoped-for Cuban insurrection against the government
 of Fidel 
CASTRO did not materialize, and the
 invasion force was easily defeated by Cuban forces,
 suffering approximately 90 battle deaths and the
 capture of the balance of the force, ultimately
 exchanged for food and medical supplies.

Beard, Charles Austin (1874-1948), U.S. historian,
 whose Economic Interpretation of the Constitution
 (1913) and subsequent works pioneered in the
 development of materialist interpretation of
 American history. He and Mary Ritter Beard, his
 wife, co-authored The Rise of American Civilization
 (1927), a full-scale and not entirely deterministic
 view of the entire sweep of American history.

beat generation, an avant-garde U.S. 1950s movement
 in literature and the arts, that focused on the
 theme of youthful alienation from the material
 culture of the post-World War II era, along with
 considerable stylistic innovation, as expressed in
 the work of such Beat leaders as Jack Kerouac and
 Allen Ginsberg. The movement had substantial impact
 on the developing social movements of the time,
 then merged with the much larger 
COUNTERCULTURE
 of the 1960s. Those enraged by the movement and its
 defiance of current conventions coined the
 derogatory term "beatniks" to describe those in the
 "beat" movement.

Beatles, The, George Harrison, John Lennon, Paul
 McCartney, and Ringo Starr, the four young singers
 from Liverpool, whose then-unconventional singing
 and personal styles revolutionized the popular
 music of their time and had a major impact on the
 social revolution, then in its formative stages,
 later called the 
COUNTERCULTURE. The Beatles
 began their joint career in Liverpool in 1958 and
 burst into popular consciousness in 1962.

Beauvoir, Simone de (1908-86), French writer,
 philosopher, and leading 20th-century feminist,
 whose book The Second Sex (1949) was a key work for
 the post-World War II feminist movement. She was a
 lifetime companion of Jean-Paul 
SARTRE.

Beaverbrook (Lord Beaverbrook, William Maxwell
 Aitken; 1879-1964), Canadian financier, who moved
 to London in 1910 and thereafter pursued twin and
 intertwined British careers as a politician and
 press baron. Before World War I he was a powerful
 supporter of Bonar 
LAW and a member of Parliment.
 During the war he helped topple the 
ASQUITH
 government and bring 
LLOYD GEORGE to power,
 becoming minister of information in 1918.
 Meanwhile, he began to acquire the major newspapers
 that were ultimately to make him a press baron,
 beginning with the purchase of the Daily Express in
 1916. During World War II he served in
 
CHURCHILL's cabinet until 1942 and thereafter did
 specific tasks on request, as his temperament made
 it difficult to fit him into a continuing working
 group. His last major direct political involvement
 was to play a very important role in developing
 strategy and tactics in Churchill's unsuccessful
 1945 campaign.

Bechuanaland, the former name of 
BOTSWANA
 (
REPUBLIC OF BOTSWANA), which was a British
 protectorate until September 30, 1966.

Beebe, Charles William (1877-1962), U.S. biologist,
 nature writer, and explorer long associated with
 the New York Zoological Gardens (Bronx Zoo),
 working in ornithology and tropical research. He
 also pioneered in exploring the depths of the
 world's oceans, in 1934 setting a record, with Otis
 Barton, for depth exploration off Bermuda in a
 
BATHYSPHERE  they had developed in 1930.

Beer Hall Putsch, the failed Nazi Bavarian coup of
 November 8-11, 1923, for which Adolf 
HITLER was
 jailed, and which first brought the 
NAZI PARTY to
 national attention in Germany.

BEF, the 
BRITISH EXPEDITIONARY FORCES, the
 British fighting forces in France during both world
 wars.

Begelman-Robertson case, a 1977 case in which actor
 Cliff Robertson was blacklisted for some years by
 the film industry because he had "blown the
 whistle" on David Begelman, Columbia Pictures
 executive, who had forged Robertson's name on a
 $10,000 check and cashed it himself. Ultimately,
 Begelman pleaded no contest to grand theft charges,
 which were later reduced to a misdemeanor, and
 continued to be a major film industry figure as
 president of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Robertson
 eventually found work again.

Begin, Menachem (1913- ), Polish Zionist leader,
 who was imprisoned by the Soviets early in World
 War II but released after the Nazi invasion of the
 Soviet Union, then finding his way to Palestine in
 1942 as part of the Polish army in exile. A
 disciple of Zionist Revisionist Vladimir
 
JABOTINSKY, he became leader of the terrorist
 
IRGUN ZVAI LEUMI in 1943 and mounted a terror
 campaign against the British occupiers of
 Palestine, these tactics being in opposition to the
 policies of the main Zionist organizations of the
 time, including the World Zionist Organization and
 the 
HAGANAH, the Jewish army. After World War II
 the Irgun was temporarily allied with the Haganah;
 but it was effectively outlawed for a time after
 July 22, 1946, when, under the direct supervision
 of Menachim Begin and against strong Haganah
 protest, the Irgun bombed a British office wing in
 Jerusalem's 
KING DAVID HOTEL, killing 91 people,
 17 of them Jews, and thereafter committed a series
 of major terrorist actions. After Israeli
 independence the new government attacked and sank
 an Irgun munitions ship off the Israeli coast and
 forced dissolution of Begin's separate Irgun
 military organization. In 1948 Begin founded the
 nationalist Herut party, leading it in opposition
 until 1967, when he joined the 1967-70 coalition
 government. He became 
LIKUD party prime minister
 of Israel, 1977-83. While prime minister, he
 negotiated the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty in
 1978-and with Anwar 
SADAT won the 1978 Nobel
 Peace Prize-while also engaging in the 1982
 invasion of Lebanon. His resignation in 1983
 resulted from ill health and also was widely
 reported to stem partly from the unpopularity of
 his Lebanon policy. He then entirely retired from
 public life.

behaviorism, school of psychology founded in 1913
 by John B. 
WATSON that focuses on studying and
 shaping human actions, rather than on introspective
 analysis or "talking" therapy. Building on early
 experimental work by Russian physiologist Ivan
 
PAVLOV and U.S. psychologist Edward Lee
 
THORNDIKE, Watson attempted to make psychology a
 laboratory science. He posited that human behavior
 is not the result of instinct or heredity but of
 training (conditioning) and that experimental
 studies of observable and measurable responses to
 stimuli were the proper focus of psychology, not
 unobservable phenomena (feelings). One of
 behaviorism's best-known exponents from the late
 1930s on was B. F. 
SKINNER, who taught that will
 and freedom are illusions and that behavior is
 wholly controlled by experience. From at least the
 1960's some behaviorist approaches and results were
 given practical application, especially the idea of
 positive reinforcement for desired behavior.
 Skinner developed the idea of programmed
 instruction, using a "teaching machine" to organize
 learning in a more rigorous, efficient way; though
 the machine itself did not last, some of Skinner's
 approaches were taken on by modern education,
 especially when 
COMPUTERS arrived in the schools.
 Another practical application was behavior
 modification, which attempts to deal with problems
 not by analyzing why they occur but by changing the
 behavior itself, such as smoking.

Beijing Spring, media-generated term describing the
 
CHINESE STUDENT DEMONSTRATIONS of 1989.

Beirut peacekeeping force bombings (October 23,
 1983), the suicide bombings of the U.S. and French
 peacekeeping forces in Beirut, Lebanon, by Arab
 guerrillas, who drove trucks loaded with explosives
 into the barracks of both forces, killing 241
 Americans and 58 French.

Belgian Congo, the former Belgian colony in central
 Africa, which became the independent nation of
 
ZAIRE (REPUBLIC OF ZAIRE) on June 30, 1960.

Belgium, Battle of (May 10-28, 1940), invasion of
 Belgium early in World War II, starting when German
 ground forces struck across the Belgian frontier on
 May 10 while German bombers carried out terror
 attacks on Belgian cities. Belgian, French, and
 British forces fell back to strong defensive
 positions, by May 15 facing the Germans on the Dyle
 Line. But by then German armies had taken Holland
 and were turning the Allied line from the north;
 meanwhile, German armies in France had broken
 through near Sedan in the 
ARDENNES and threatened
 from the south. The position was untenable; on May
 27 the Belgian army surrendered, and by June 4 the
 British and French had completed the evacuation of
 Allied troops at 
DUNKIRK.

Belize, until 1981 a British colony. Belize became
 an independent state and member of the
 
COMMONWEALTH on September 21, 1981, though
 remaining under British military protection because
 of the long-standing Belize-Guatemala border
 dispute, unresolved since 1940.

Belleau Wood, Battle of (May 30-June 17, 1918), the
 third U.S.World War I battle, in which the U.S.
 Second Division, spearheaded by its marine brigade,
 counterattacked German positions along the Marne,
 at Belleau Wood, Bouresches, and Vaux, thereby
 helping to limit German gains during the German
 
AISNE offensive of 1918.

Bell X-1, type of U.S. jet flown by pilot Charles
 
YEAGER when breaking the 
SOUND BARRIER in 1947.


Belsen (Bergen-Belsen), German 
CONCENTRATION CAMP
 on Luneberg Heath in Germany, to which hundreds of
 thousands of prisoners from farther east were
 transferred late in the war as Soviet armies took
 Eastern Europe.

Ben Bella, Ahmed (1918- ), Algerian officer, who
 saw service in the French army during World War II,
 then joined the Algerian independence movement and
 afterward co-founded the Special Organization,
 which prepared for armed action. He was arrested in
 1952, escaped, and in 1954 was a key founder of the
 
FLN (NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT). He was captured
 by the French in 1956 and imprisoned until 1962, at
 the end of the 
ALGERIAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. In
 September 1962, Ben Bella became the first premier
 of independent Algeria. An Islamic socialist, he
 fostered Algerian state socialism, introduced
 authoritarian one-party rule in Algeria, and was a
 leading neutralist. In 1965 he was toppled and
 imprisoned by his long-time associate, Houari
 
BOUMEDIENNE; he was released by the new
 government of Ben-Jedid 
CHADLI in 1980, and went
 into exile.

Benedict, Ruth (1887-1948), U.S. anthropologist, a
 leading figure in the study of preindustrial or
 "primitive" cultures. Her major work, Patterns of
 Culture (1934), posited cultural 
RELATIVITY and
 implied cultural equality among all peoples of the
 world. It greatly stimulated the development of
 comparative cultural studies, helped popularize
 such studies and the then relatively new science of
 anthropology, and was widely used to refute the
 racist theories disseminated by the 
NAZIS and
 their sympathizers.

Benes, Eduard (1884-1948), Czech independence
 movement leader, who from 1915 worked with Tomas
 
MASARYK and was the first foreign minister of
 Czechoslovakia (1918-35), then succeeding Masaryk
 as Czech president. He resigned in 1938, after the
 
MUNICH AGREEMENT, and headed the Czech
 government-in-exile in London from 1940. He became
 president again in 1945, resigned in 1948 after the
 Communist takeover of his country, and died shortly
 thereafter.

Bengal cyclones, a succession of cyclones out of
 the Bay of Bengal that for centuries have struck
 the low-lying islands and coastal lands of what is
 now Bangladesh, creating many of the worst natural
 disasters in history. In the 20th century one of
 the worst was the cyclone of of November 13, 1970,
 which killed an estimated 200,000-500,000 people.
 Major cyclone-caused disasters also were reported
 in 1942, 1960, 1963, 1965, 1977, and 1987.

Ben Gurion, David (David Green; 1886-1973),
 Polish-Israeli Zionist, who emigrated from Poland
 to Israel at the age of 20, there becoming a leader
 of the socialist sector of the Zionist movement. He
 joined the Jewish Legion, fighting with the British
 in World War I. In 1921 he became first
 secretary-general of the Palestine Jewish labor
 federation, the Histadrut, and in 1930 founded the
 united socialist party, the 
MAPAI. From 1935
 through establishment of the state of Israel in
 1948, he was chairman of both the Jewish Agency for
 Palestine and the World Zionist Organization,
 becoming the leader of the Israeli independence
 movement until and through the 1948 
ISRAELI WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE (FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR). As leader
 he sharply opposed limitation of Jewish immigration
 into Palestine, fostered the development of the
 Jewish army, the 
HAGANAH, and its striking force,
 the 
PALMACH, and opposed the terrorist tactics of
 the 
IRGUN ZVAI LEUMI and the 
STERN GANG. Ben
 Gurion and his associates succeeded in developing
 worldwide support for Jewish national aspirations
 in Palestine, along with massive practical support
 from American and Western European Jewish
 communities.  He was Israel's first prime minister
 (1949-53; 1955-63).

Benin (People's Republic of Benin), until
 independence on August 1, 1960, known as Dahomey, a
 French colony. A series of short-lived governments
 and military coups followed independence until the
 emergence in 1972 of then-major Ahmed Kerekou, who
 organized Dahomey into a one-party Marxist-oriented
 state, changed the name of the country to Benin in
 1975, and continued to hold power.

Bennett, Floyd (1890-1928), U.S. aviator who, with
 Richard E. 
BYRD, was the first to fly over the
 
NORTH POLE in 1926. He died of pneumonia before
 he could join Byrd on a flight over the 
SOUTH

 POLE.

Bentsen, Lloyd (1926- ), U.S. lawyer and judge, a
 Texas Democrat, in the House of Representatives
 1949-55 and in the Senate from 1970. He was the
 unsuccessful Democratic vice-presidential candidate
 in 1988; a moderate, his choice was widely thought
 to have supplied both geographical and ideological
 balance to the 
DUKAKIS candidacy.

Bergen-Belsen, alternate name for the 
BELSEN
 German concentration camp.

Berger, Victor Louis (1860-1929), U.S. socialist
 organizer and editor, who was a founder of the
 
SOCIALIST PARTY in 1900 and in 1911 served one
 term in the House of Representatives, becoming the
 first socialist to sit in the House. He opposed
 U.S. participation in World War I, was indicted for
 sedition, and in 1918 was barred from serving his
 second term in the House because of the indictment.
 His conviction of sedition was voided by the
 Supreme Court in 1921; he then served three more
 congressional terms.

Beria, Lavrenti Pavlovich (1899-1953), the head of
 the Soviet secret police from 1938, a prime mover
 during the Soviet 
GREAT PURGE and 
MOSCOW TRIALS
 of the late 1930s, and thereafter chief secret
 police official as head of the ministry of internal
 affairs. He lost the power struggle that followed
 
STALIN'S death in 1953 and was himself executed
 in December 1953.

Berkeley Free Speech Movement (1964-65), a U.S.
 college campus protest movement and a major event
 in the emergence of the 1960s 
NEW LEFT. The
 movement began as a dispute on the Berkeley campus
 of the University of California over a college
 administration ban on the distribution of political
 material originated off campus; it grew into a
 national series of protests touching on many
 issues, including campus recruitment by companies
 involved in 
VIETNAM WAR-connected production,
 war-related and government-funded research, and the
 war itself.

Berkman, Alexander (1870-1936), leading U.S.
 anarchist of the early 20th century and the
 long-time companion and lover of Emma 
GOLDMAN. In
 1892 Berkman unsuccessfully tried to assassinate
 industrialist Henry Clay Frick, of the Carnegie
 Steel Company, after the violent Homestead Steel
 Strike. He served 14 years in prison for the
 attempt; from 1906 to 1919 he was, with Emma
 Goldman, the leading anarchist spokesperson of the
 time. In 1919, during the period of the 
PALMER

 RAIDS, both were deported to Soviet Union.
 Disillusioned with Soviet society, Berkman later
 left the Soviet Union, spent the rest of his life
 in Western Europe and finally committed suicide in
 1936.

Berkowitz, David R., killer who wrote a series of
 highly publicized letters to newspapers, signed
 
"SON OF SAM," while he was committing six murders
 and seven other assaults in a series of night
 attacks in New York City during 1976-77. Attempts
 to capitalize on his story led to passage of New
 York State's "Son of Sam" law, aimed at barring
 criminals from participating in profits derived
 from their crimes.

Berlin blockade and airlift (1948-49), blockade of
 West Berlin by Soviet forces, beginning on June 22,
 1948, stopping all food, coal, and other necessary
 supplies from reaching the city. On June 26 a
 massive Allied airlift began; from then until
 September 30, 1949, more than 275,000 flights
 carried over 2,300,000 tons of supplies to the
 city. The blockade ended in May 1949; the airlift
 continued until stocks of supplies had been built
 up.

Berlin, fall of (April 22-May 2, 1945), late World
 War II collapse of the German capital as Soviet
 forces reached and surrounded Berlin in late April,
 while advancing U.S. troops paused on the Elbe
 River, and took the city in house-to-house fighting
 that ended on May 2. Adolf 
HITLER committed
 suicide in his command bunker on April 30, 1945.

Berlin Wall (1961), a wall dividing East and West
 Berlin, built overnight by the East German
 government on August 12, 1961, to close the East
 German border with West Berlin. It became one of
 the key symbols of the 
COLD WAR. In November
 1989, massive political changes in East Germany
 began, negating the Wall and signalling the
 beginning of a new chapter in German history.

Bernadotte, Folke (1895-1948), Swedish diplomat
 who, while working with the Red Cross during World
 War II, carried Heinrich
 HIMMLER'S rejected peace
 proposal to the Allies and who in 1948, while
 United Nations mediator in Palestine, was murdered
 by the 
STERN GANG.

Bernstein, Carl (1944- ), U.S. journalist who, with
 his reporting partner Bob 
WOODWARD, covered the
 1972 
WATERGATE burglary story for the Washington
 Post and ultimately broke the major story that led
 to the resignation of Richard M. 
NIXON and the
 imprisonment of many of the Watergate conspirators.


Berri, Nabih (1937- ), Lebanese lawyer, who became
 active in the 
AMAL Shiite militia in 1975,
 ultimately becoming chief Lebanese Shiite leader.
 In June 1985 he was active in negotiations leading
 to the release of American airplane hijacking
 hostages in Beirut.

Berrigan, Daniel (1921- ), U.S. Catholic priest,
 who became a leading activist opponent of the
 
VIETNAM WAR and who, with his brother Philip,
 (1923- ), also a Catholic priest, was convicted in
 1967 of pouring blood on Selective Service files in
 Baltimore. While awaiting sentencing in 1968, he
 poured napalm on draft cards in a Selective Service
 office in Catonsville, Maryland, for which he was
 again convicted, along with the rest of the
 
CATONSVILLE NINE. Sentenced to prison, he fled;
 he was captured in 1970 and served 18 months in
 prison, later continuing his antiwar activities.

Besant, Annie (Annie Wood; 1847-1933), British
 suffragist, socialist, and mystic, active until
 1893 in Great Britain. A theosophist from 1889, she
 lived in India from 1893 and was president of the
 Theosophical Society 1907-33. In India she founded
 the Central Hindu College at Benares in 1898 and
 became active in the nationalist movement. She
 became president of the 
CONGRESS PARTY in 1917,
 although opposed to civil disobedience. She lost
 her leadership as the party became committed to
 mass nonviolent action as developed by Mohatma
 
GANDHI.

beta particles, one of the three products of
 natural 
RADIOACTIVITY, found to be speeded-up
 
ELECTRONS; discovered and named by Ernest
 
RUTHERFORD in the early 1900s.

beta rhythms, type of brain wave associated with
 wakeful alertness, first discovered by Hans Berger
 using his 
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH (EEG).

Bethe, Hans Albrecht (1906- ),
 German-Jewish-American physicist, who in 1939
 proposed that the energy of the Sun and stars comes
 from 
NUCLEAR FUSION, work that won him the 1967
 Nobel Prize for Physics and laid the foundation for
 the 
HYDROGEN BOMB. After early work in 
QUANTUM

 THEORY, Bethe left Germany at the 1933 rise of the
 
NAZIS, settling in the United States; during
 World War II he headed the theoretical physics
 division at 
LOS ALAMOS, helping to create the
 
ATOMIC BOMB. After the bombings of 
HIROSHIMA
 and 
NAGASAKI in 1945, however, he became a
 leading advocate of nuclear disarmament.

Bethune, Mary McLeod (1875-1955), U.S. teacher,
 college president (Bethune-Cookman College), and
 founder of the National Council of Negro Women
 (1935), who became a federal official and a
 presidential advisor on minority affairs in the
 1930s and 1940s.

Bethune, Norman (1899-1939), Canadian doctor, who
 became a battlefront surgeon with Chinese Communist
 forces, 1937-39, and died at the front; he is
 regarded by Communist China as a major
 revolutionary hero.

Bettelheim, Bruno (1903-1990), Austrian-American
 psychologist and educator. Vienna-trained,
 Bettelheim was held in 
DACHAU and 
BUCHENWALD,
 1938-39; he used what he learned about the effects
 of the camps on the prisoners in his later work.
 From 1944 to 1973 he was associated with the
 University of Chicago's Sonia Shankman Orthogenic
 School for severely disturbed children, adopting a
 strategy of total acceptance of the child's
 behavior and becoming widely known for his success
 with autistic children. Among his widely read books
 were The Children of the Dream (1969) and The Uses
 of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy
 Tales (1976).

Bevan, Aneurin "Nye" (1897-1960), Welsh coal miner,
 trade unionist, socialist, British Labour MP
 1929-60, and a leader of the left wing of his party
 from the mid-1930s until his death. He was minister
 of health in Clement Attlee's post-World War II
 Labour government, during which time he established
 the 
NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE. In the early 1950s
 he opposed Britain's increasingly strong links with
 the United States, promoted nuclear disarmament,
 and opposed the more moderate majority in his
 party; later he partially reconciled his
 differences, drawing somewhat closer to the party
 leadership. Bevan's wife was Jennie 
LEE.

Beveridge Plan, a 1942 report, developed under the
 leadership of British economist William Beveridge,
 that proposed the main outlines of the "cradle to
 the grave" social service network that largely came
 to being in Britain after World War II. Two of the
 plan's most important aspects were social security
 and 
NATIONAL HEALTH INSURANCE.

Bevin, Ernest (1881-1951), British laborer and
 Docker's Union official, who in 1921 merged 22
 unions into the Transport and General Workers Union
 (TGWU), which he headed. He was 
CHURCHILL's
 wartime coalition cabinet minister of labor and
 
ATTLEE'S foreign secretary in the first
 post-World War II cabinet. In the latter position
 he welcomed the 
MARSHALL PLAN, brought Britain
 fully into the developing 
COLD WAR between the
 United States and the Soviet Union, and opposed the
 early establishment of Israel as an independent
 state.

Bhopal toxic cloud (December 3, 1984), a leak of
 lethal methyl isocyanate gas at Union Carbide plant
 in Bhopal, India, that caused a toxic cloud to
 spread over the city, killing over 3,500 people and
 injuring an estimated 200,000 more. In February
 1989, after the Indian government had taken over
 prosecution of more than 500,000 compensation
 claims filed by its citizens, Union Carbide settled
 those claims for $470 million. The case was
 reopened by the Indian government in early 1990.

Bhutto, Benazir (1943- ), Pakistani political
 leader, daughter of Zulfikar Ali 
BHUTTO, and
 leader of the 
PAKISTAN PEOPLE'S PARTY. She
 returned from exile in July 1985 for the funeral of
 her brother and was arrested and returned to exile;
 in April 1986 she returned to lead the opposition
 to the rule of Mohammad 
ZIA UL-HAQ. She became
 the elected prime minister of Pakistan on December
 2, 1988, after Zia's death in an August airplane
 crash.

Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali (1928-79), Pakistani lawyer
 and father of Benazir 
BHUTTO; he held several
 cabinet-level positions in the 
AYUB KHAN
 government beginning in 1958 but was dismissed as
 foreign minister in 1966. In 1967 he formed the
 
PAKISTAN PEOPLE'S PARTY, which became a
 substantial opposition party, winning the majority
 of the West Pakistan and a minority of the East
 Pakistan parliamentary seats in the 1970 election.
 The election was voided, however, generating the
 sequence of events that during 1971 led to the
 
BANGLADESH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE and the
 
INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR OF 1971. On December 20, 1971,
 Bhutto took power as chief martial law
 administrator and in 1972 negotiated a peace
 settlement with India, recognized Bangladesh,
 initiated a new constitution, and became prime
 minister. His party won the March 1977 elections,
 but the election results were disputed by
 opposition parties; in July an army coup brought
 General Mohammad 
ZIA UL-HAQ to power. Bhutto was
 arrested, sentenced to death for an alleged 1974
 political murder, and executed on April 4, 1979,
 despite worldwide protests.

Biafra famine (1967-69), massive famine,
 accompanied by resultant disease, that was
 generated by the 
NIGERIA-BIAFRA CIVIL WAR, taking
 the lives of an estimated 1 million Biafrans
 despite worldwide relief efforts. The Nigerian
 government's refusal for long periods to admit
 relief shipments contributed considerably to the
 scope of the disaster.

Bidault, Georges (1889-1983), French teacher who
 became an anti-
APPEASEMENT political leader in
 the 1930s and led the French 
RESISTANCE 1943-44.
 He became foreign minister of the provisional
 government in 1944, in 1946 first prime minister of
 the Fourth Republic; and again prime minister,
 1949-50, holding several other cabinet-level posts
 in the late 1940s and early 1950s. He was a leader
 of the insurgent opposition to Algerian
 independence, going into exile 1962-68.

Biden, Joseph Robinette, Jr. (1942- ), U.S. lawyer
 and Democratic senator from Delaware from 1972. In
 1976 he was chairman of the Senate Judiciary
 Committee, which rejected President Ronald
 
REAGAN'S nomination of Judge Robert 
BORK to the
 Supreme Court. In September 1987 he withdrew from
 the Democratic presidential nomination race after
 the 
DUKAKIS staff had spread reports that Biden
 had plagiarized speeches from Neil 
KINNOCK and
 other political figures. In the wake of the affair,
 Dukakis campaign manager John Sasso resigned his
 post, returning to the campaign in 1988.

big bang theory, cosmological theory that the
 universe began with the explosion of a highly
 condensed "atom" containing all mass and has
 continuously expanded since then. First put forward
 in 1927 by Belgian priest Georges 
LEMAHJTRE and
 supported by eloquent physicists such as George
 
GAMOW, the big bang theory stood in the shadow of
 the rival 
STEADY-STATE THEORY until the 1960s.
 Then 
RADIO ASTRONOMY discoveries began to confirm
 it, especially the 1965 detection of background
 cosmic 
MICROWAVE RADIATION consistent with a
 primordial "big bang" by Bell Laboratory scientists
 Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson, for which
 they were awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Physics.


Big Bertha, popular name for the battery of
 long-range siege guns, with a range of 75-80 miles,
 used by the Germans to bombard Paris March-August,
 1918. The bombardment had no significant military
 effect, had some morale effect, and did not alter
 the course of World War I.

Big Brother is watching you, the totalitarian
 slogan penned by George 
ORWELL in 1984, his 1949
 novel warning of the dangers posed by the
 development of the bureaucratic state.

Bikini, depopulated Pacific atoll in the Marshall
 Islands, site of U.S. 
ATOMIC BOMB and later
 
HYDROGEN BOMB tests from 1946 to 1958. In 1968
 Bikini was declared safe, and its earlier
 inhabitants were allowed to return, only to be
 removed again in 1978 on reassessment of the
 medical hazards from 
FALLOUT.

Biko, Steve (1946-77), South African Black
 nationalist and an advocate of Black consciousness,
 who was a founder of the South African Students
 Organization in 1968, while still a medical
 student, and also of the Black People's Convention
 in 1972. In August 1977 he was arrested for alleged
 subversive activities; on September 12, 1977, he
 died while in the hands of the South African police
 in circumstances so questionable that his death was
 called murder by many, generating a worldwide
 protest and a nationwide student strike.

Billings, Warren K., U.S. labor leader convicted
 with Tom 
MOONEY of the 1916 Preparedness Day
 bombing in San Francisco; his life sentence was
 reduced, and he was released in in 1939.

binary system, 2-digit numerical system, as opposed
 to the standard 10-digit decimal system; adopted by
 John 
ATANASOFF for the 
ABC computer (built
 1937-42) and widely used in modern 
DIGITAL

 COMPUTERS because the two binary digits (bits)-0
 and 1-can correspond to "on" and "off" signals in a
 computer. The numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in the
 decimal system would translate in the two-digit
 binary system to 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, and so on.


Binet, Alfred (1857-1911), French psychologist, who
 developed the first formal tests of human
 intelligence, the score of which is the
 
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ). Originally designed
 to test his own daughters, then (with Theodore
 Simon) reoriented to test retarded children, the
 tests were revised in 1908 and 1911 to test normal
 children. That test was later adapted for American
 use by psychologist Lewis M. Terman at Stanford
 University, the result being the Stanford-Binet
 Intelligence Scale test.

Bingham, Hiram (1875-1956), U.S. explorer and
 politician, who in 1911 rediscovered the long-lost
 Inca stronghold, 
MACHU PICCHU, high in the
 Peruvian Andes.

biofeedback, assertion of some voluntary control
 over normally involuntary biological processes,
 such as heart rate and blood pressure, often guided
 by readings on devices such as
 
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHS. Though similar approaches
 were used earlier (as in yoga), biofeedback was
 first scientifically demonstrated in 1967 by Neal
 Miller and Jay Towill, who used 
PAVLOV's
 conditioning techniques to teach animals how to,
 for example, raise or lower their blood pressure.


biological clock, theoretical mechanism controlling
 internal biological cycles called 
BIORHYTHMS,
 that govern various functions and behavior in
 living things; in humans, including eating,
 sleeping, and sexual responses. The biological
 clock was first described and named in 1927 by U.S.
 psychobiologist Curt Paul Richter.

biological warfare, use of toxic biological agents
 in 
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE.

Biological Warfare Ban Treaty, treaty supplementing
 the 1925 
GENEVA PROTOCOL in attempting to ban use
 of 
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE, ratified by
 the United Nations in 1972 and by the U.S. Senate
 in 1974, following President Richard 
NIXON's 1969
 unilateral renunciation of biological weapons and
 first use of chemical weapons.

biorhythms, internal biological cycles seen in
 various functions and behavior in living things-in
 humans, including eating, sleeping, and sexual
 responses-governed by a kind of internal
 
BIOLOGICAL CLOCK, regardless of external cues
 such as day or night. In humans, as in other
 beings, biorhythms affect many parts of life,
 effects heightened when modern technology runs
 counter to them, producing problems such as jet lag
 or decreased safety on a night shift.

Birenda Bir Bikram Shah Deva (1945- ), Nepalese
 king (1972- ), who succeeded to the throne after
 the death of his father, Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah
 Deva, and thereafter pursued a nonaligned course in
 world affairs, especially as regards the interests
 of Nepal's huge neighbors, China and India.
 Domestically, he sucessfully resisted the
 reintroduction of the short-lived democracy
 instituted by his father with the constitution of
 1959 and then suppressed by his father in 1960.

Bir Hacheim, Battle of (May 28-June 13, 1942),
 World War II engagement in North Africa. After the
 Italian 
WESTERN DESERT CAMPAIGN disaster of 1941,
 the Germans sent General Erwin 
ROMMEL to North
 Africa, with substantial fresh German forces. In
 January 1942, his forces moved to the offensive in
 Libya; on May 28 they attacked and in a 2-week
 battle defeated the Allies and forced a long
 retreat back into Egypt.

Birkenau, alternate name for the
 
AUSCHWITZ-BIRKENAU German 
CONCENTRATION CAMP.


Birmingham civil rights campaign (April-September
 1963), a campaign to desegregate public facilities
 and introduce fair employment practices in
 Birmingham, Alabama, which began with sit-ins at
 lunch counters and in other segregated public
 places and moved to substantial peaceful
 demonstrations, in a campaign led by Martin Luther
 
KING, Jr. The city of Birmingham and its public
 safety commissioner, Eugene "Bull" 
CONNOR,
 responded with great violence, beating and jailing
 over 2,000 and using water hoses and police dogs
 against groups that included many children. The
 newsphoto of a police dog leaping at a Black child
 became one of the most celebrated photos of the
 period, enjoying worldwide circulation as a symbol
 of southern American justice. An agreement was
 ultimately reached, desegregating many facilities
 in the downtown area, releasing those jailed, and
 setting up committees to further fair employment
 practices. On May 11 two bombings of 
CIVIL RIGHTS

 MOVEMENT headquarters led to Black rioting, and
 federal troops were sent to Birmingham to restore
 order. On September 15, while Sunday School was
 being conducted, the Sixteenth Street Baptist
 Church was bombed; four children were killed: Addie
 Mae Collins, Denis McNair, Carol Robertson, and
 Cynthia Wesley.

birth control clinic, institution for providing
 contraceptive information to individuals, focusing
 on planned, not accidental, parenthood. The first
 such clinic was founded in the 19th century in
 Amsterdam, but successors did not follow until
 1916. Then Margaret 
SANGER, who had coined the
 phrase "birth control" 2 years earlier, founded the
 first such clinic in the United States; it was soon
 closed by the police, and Sanger was arrested, a
 permanent clinic opening only in 1923. The first
 birth control clinic in Britain was opened by Marie
 
STOPES in 1921. Sanger, Stopes, and other birth
 control advocates were considerably hampered by
 legal restrictions. In the United States
 19th-century Comstock Laws classified contraceptive
 information as obscene and therefore unlawful to
 send by mail. Not until Margaret Sanger won an
 appeal on her 1917 arrest were U.S. physicians able
 to give birth control information to their patients
 legally; and it was not until another ruling, in
 1936, that they could provide or prescribe
 contraceptive devices. Other countries faced
 similar restrictions; in some countries, especially
 Catholic ones such as Ireland, contraceptive
 information was still not widely available as late
 as the 1980s. Meanwhile several new forms of
 contraceptives were introduced, for clinics to add
 to the traditional stock. A spermicide was
 developed in Britain in 1927; 
INTRAUTERINE

 DEVICES (IUDs) were used from the 1920s, often
 variations on cruder 19th-century devices and often
 with harmful side effects, as with the 
DALKON

 SHIELD; and the 
BIRTH CONTROL PILL, introduced
 in 1955, had some side effects of its own. Birth
 control clinics also offered the options of
 sterilization for men or women or abortion. In many
 countries abortion became a main form of birth
 control in the 20th century. The Soviet Union, in
 1920, was the first major country to make abortion
 available at the mother's request; many other
 countries followed, with various restrictions. In
 the United States, after the 1973 Roe v. Wade case,
 abortions became freely available and many birth
 control clinics began to double as abortion
 clinics. This brought them into conflict with
 people in the 
RIGHT TO LIFE movement, who in the
 1980s staged emotional and often violent protests
 at clinics around the country. A "morning-after
 pill," developed in France in the 1980s, could make
 such questions moot.

birth control pill, drug of synthesized 
ESTROGEN
 and other 
HORMONES that interrupts a woman's
 monthly ovulation-menstruation cycle, preventing
 conception. The first such oral contraceptive was
 developed by research biologist Gregory 
PINCUS in
 1951-55. Widely used, "the pill" was a major factor
 in the sexual revolution starting in the 1960s. By
 1968 side effects such as increased susceptibility
 to blood clots became known, though longer-term
 studies into the 1980s also showed some beneficial
 side-effects.

Bishop, William Avery (1894-1956), Canadian pilot,
 who during World War I became a leading Allied ace,
 shooting down 72 German airplanes and winning the
 Victoria Cross. He was in commercial aviation
 during the interwar period, became a Canadian air
 vice marshal in 1936 and air marshal in 1938, and
 directed the Canadian air force during World War
 II.

Bismarck Sea, Battle of the (March 2-4, 1943), a
 series of Allied bomber and PT boat attacks on a
 Japanese convoy of eight destroyers and eight
 transports. All eight transports and four of the
 destroyers were sunk, with an estimated loss of
 3,000 Japanese troops and with minor Allied losses.


Bismarck sinking (May 21-28, 1941), British sinking
 of the German battleship, the most heavily armed
 warship in the world. The Bismarck left port on May
 21 and met pursuing British warships in Denmark
 Strait on May 24, there quickly sinking the battle
 cruiser Hood with a loss of almost 1,500 men and
 damaging the battleship 
PRINCE OF WALES. On May
 26 British warships found the now-damaged Bismarck
 again, this time ultimately sinking the ship after
 a 2-day battle, with a loss of 2,300 men.

Bitberg dispute, controversy that developed when
 U.S. president Ronald 
REAGAN, on May 5, 1985,
 placed a wreath at the graves of German war dead in
 the Bitberg, West Germany, military cemetery,
 having placed a wreath at the 
BERGEN-BELSEN
 concentration camp memorial on the same day. He
 defended the Bitberg action as an act of
 reconciliation; those who attacked the action
 pointed out that the cemetery contained the graves
 of members of the 
WAFFEN SS, the organization
 that had primary 
DEATH CAMP responsibility.

Black, Hugo LaFayette (1886-1971), U.S. lawyer and
 Democratic Alabama senator (1927-37), who was
 appointed by Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT to the Supreme
 Court in 1937 after some opposition because of his
 1920s membership in the 
KU KLUX KLAN. During his
 34 years on the Court he became one of its leading
 proponents of strict adherence to the Constitution,
 especially as to the protections afforded by the
 Bill of Rights, and of the separation of church and
 state; he was therefore often described as a
 liberal, never more so than during the height of
 the 
MCCARTHY period. However, his concern with
 strict adherence to the Constitution also led him
 take a number of positions that in political,
 rather than juridical, terms were thought
 conservative, as in his willingness to allow the
 federal barring of Japanese-Americans from the
 Pacific Coast states during World War II.

Black and Tans, a British military force operating
 as an occupation military police force in Ireland
 1920-21, during the 
IRISH CIVIL WAR, that
 committed a considerable body of atrocities against
 the civilian population while attempting to
 suppress the insurgency.

Black Book, a British World War I home front
 sensation; an entirely fictional list of tens of
 thousands of alleged perverts in high places, among
 them Prime Minister 
ASQUITH and his wife.

Black Dragon Society, a Japanese right-wing
 expansionist group, formed in 1901, that until the
 end of World War II pressed the Japanese government
 to aggressively expand Japan's area of control in
 northeast Asia.

Blackett, Patrick Maynard Stuart (1897-1974),
 British physicist, who made key early use of a
 much-improved Wilson 
CLOUD CHAMBER to study
 
COSMIC RAYS, winning the 1948 Nobel Prize for
 Physics. Using the cloud chamber, in 1925 he took
 the first photographs of an atom disintegrating
 under bombardment and in 1935 confirmed with a
 physical demonstration Albert 
EINSTEIN's 
E =
 
MC² equation. During World War II he strongly
 supported the development of 
RADAR and the
 
ATOMIC BOMB, later speaking out against the
 dangers of nuclear warfare. His views on magnetism
 in ancient rocks supported the 
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
 theory.

Black Hand, the name supplied by the American press
 to an extortion scheme involving death threats,
 widely practiced in Italian-American communities
 early in the 20th century and mistakenly thought to
 be an alternative name for the Neapolitan criminal
 secret society, the Camorra.

Black Hand, the Serbian secret society "Unity or
 Death," which supplied guns and training to the
 Bosnian nationalists who assassinated archduke
 
FRANCIS FERDINAND of Austria, thereby setting off
 the train of events leading directly to World War
 I.

black hole, theoretical late stage of 
STELLAR

 EVOLUTION for certain stars, a state of
 gravitational collapse in which space and time are
 curved and all light, energy, and matter are held
 by intense gravitation; first predicted by German
 astronomer Karl Schwarzschild in 1907 from Albert
 
EINSTEIN's general theory of relativity. The
 necessary mass required for a black hole was
 calculated in 1939 by J. Robert 
OPPENHEIMER.

blacklisting, placing people's names on
 government-generated and private lists as alleged
 "subversives," as was done to hundreds of thousands
 of Americans during the 
RED SCARE of the late
 1940s and early 1950s. These listings were then
 used to destroy the livelihoods and careers of
 those listed, often without their knowledge of the
 listing and usually without any opportunity to
 defend themselves. The practice was especially
 widespread and damaging in the film and
 broadcasting industries, functioning to deprive
 thousands of their livelihoods, driving many to
 pursue their careers abroad or entirely out of
 their professions, and driving some to suicide. It
 began with the 
COLD WAR "internal security"
 programs of the 
TRUMAN administration and
 developed great momentum during the 
MCCARTHY
 period; it persisted in diminishing form throughout
 the balance of the 1950s and ended in the early
 1960s.

Black Monday, October 19, 1987, the date of the
 1987 U.S. stock market crash.

Blackmun, Harry Andrew (1908- ), U.S. lawyer and
 law professor, who became an eighth Circuit U.S.
 Court of Appeals judge in 1959 and in 1970 was
 appointed by Richard M. 
NIXON to the Supreme
 Court. On the Court he remained a
 moderate-to-conservative influence in most matters,
 as originally expected, but pursued a strongly
 pro-civil rights course throughout his tenure.

Black Muslims (Nation of Islam), a religious
 organization espousing a form of the Moslem faith,
 stressing the importance of Black pride and
 education, along with Black separatism. It was
 founded in 1930 by W. D. Farah 
MUHAMMAD, led from
 1934 by Elijah Muhammad, and was the organization
 from which 
MALCOLM X came.

Black Panther Party, a revolutionary Black activist
 organization founded by Huey 
NEWTON and Bobby
 
SEALE in Oakland, California, in October 1966
 that advocated armed self-defense. Some of its
 members, including Eldridge 
CLEAVER, later
 advocated violent revolution. Members of the
 organization became involved in a series of armed
 confrontations with law enforcement authorities
 during the late 1960s and early 1970s, some of
 those confrontations resulting from violence
 directed against members of the group. Panther
 leaders Fred Hampton and Mark Clark were killed by
 attacking Chicago police in 1970. Eldridge Cleaver
 jumped bail, fled to sanctuary in Algeria, and
 later returned to the United States as a Christian
 convert. Huey Newton fled the country while retrial
 on a murder charge and later returned.

Black power, a largely undefined slogan put forward
 from 1966 by some of the Black activists associated
 with the 
STUDENT NON-VIOLENT COORDINATING

 COMMITTEE (SNCC) and the 
CONGRESS OF RACIAL

 EQUALITY (CORE) at a time when these elements of
 the 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT were moving toward the
 tactics of violent confrontation and away from both
 nonviolence and biracial cooperation.

Black September, Palestinian Arab terrorist
 organization, that was responsible for the 
MUNICH

 OLYMPICS MURDERS of 1972 and has claimed
 responsibility for many other terrorist actions.


Blackshirts, Italian fascist paramilitary militia,
 from 1921 engaged in terrorist street fighting and
 in 1922 the vehicle used by 
BENITO MUSSOLINI to
 seize power in the march on Rome. Their black
 shirts were in emulation of the shirts worn by
 elite Italian combat troops during World War I, and
 during the fascist period they were worn by many in
 Italy as a symbol of fascist affiliation.

Black Sox scandal, the most notorious scandal in
 U.S. sports history, in which eight Chicago White
 Sox players were accused of conspiring to lose the
 1919 World Series to the Cincinnati Reds. The
 series was indeed lost, and bribes were paid to
 some of the players. All eight were tried and
 acquitted in 1920 but also were barred from the
 game for the rest of their lives, public perception
 continuing to be that they had "thrown" the World
 Series.

Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929), the day of the
 most severe decline in market values during the
 U.S. stock market 
CRASH of October 1929, which
 precipitated the 
GREAT DEPRESSION of the 1930s.


Blagoveshchensk nuclear accident (1958), a major
 Soviet nuclear accident in the Ural Mountains,
 resulting in the contamination of hundreds of
 square miles of populated area; it was unreported
 for decades, and casualty figures are still
 unavailable.

Blair, Eric Arthur, the given name of British
 writer George 
ORWELL.

Blair House attack, the armed attack by Puerto
 Rican nationalists Oscar 
COLLAZO and Griselio
 Torresola, on November 1, 1950, at Washington, D.
 C.'s Blair House, in an attempt to assassinate
 President Harry 
TRUMAN.

Blalock, Alfred (1899-1964), U.S. surgeon, who in
 1944 first performed the operation that corrected
 heart defects in 
BLUE BABIES, introducing a
 technique (developed with Helen 
TAUSSIG) that has
 since saved thousands of infants and helped pave
 the way for modern 
OPEN-HEART SURGERY. With C. R.
 Hanlon he developed another now-standard technique,
 that of correcting a reversal of the heart's major
 blood vessels. Earlier he had recognized that shock
 was linked to loss of blood or blood plasma and
 developed the basic approach of giving blood or
 plasma transfusions.

Bleriot, Louis, French aviator, the first to fly
 over the English Channel, on July 25, 1909.

blimp, nonrigid type of 
DIRIGIBLE.

Blitz, The (November 1940-May 1941), the World War
 II terror bombing of London and other British
 cities by the German air force, that began as a
 prolonged series of attacks on London during the
 final phase of the Battle of 
BRITAIN; the attacks
 continued and were extended to other cities after
 the Germans had lost that battle and Hitler had
 scrapped his invasion plans.

Blitzkrieg (lightning war), mobile warfare tactics
 first fully used in World War II by the German
 army, involving the used of armored formations led
 by massed 
TANKS to breach enemy defenses, achieve
 quick, deep penetration, and roll up opposing
 forces, often bypassing enemy fortifications, which
 would later be reduced at leisure. The technique
 had been proposed and experimented with by several
 countries during the interwar period, and both
 German and Soviet armored commanders used it during
 the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR; but only the Germans used
 it early in World War II, and to great effect, in
 their conquests of Poland, France, Belgium, and
 Holland and their subsequent deep penetration of
 the Soviet Union. Later in the war the 
ALLIES
 followed suit in North Africa, the Soviet Union,
 and Western Europe.

blood bank, storage of blood or blood plasma, as in
 hospitals or by the Red Cross, for use as needed.
 The first known blood bank was formed in 1937 in
 Chicago. But it was Charles Richard 
DREW who in
 1940 formulated plans for large-scale storage of
 blood plasma. After the discovery of the 
RHESUS

 (RH) FACTOR in 1940 allowed for testing for blood
 compatibility, blood banks became widespread, and
 tests were established to screen out blood that
 might carry disease or be otherwise unsuitable for
 transfusion. Blood banks saved many lives, notably
 during World War II. But in the 1980s the 
AIDS
 virus posed a threat to the safety of the blood
 bank system; numerous people who had blood
 transfusions during surgery or for hemophilia
 contracted 
AIDS before the danger was recognized
 and tests developed. Even so, some risk remained.


Blood Purge (June 29-30, 1934), the surprise SS
 attack on and mass murders of Ernst 
ROEHM and
 many other leaders and members of the Nazi 
STORM

 TROOPERS (SA), as well as of many Nazi
 sympathizers who had fallen into disfavor. The
 murders were ordered by Adolf 
HITLER to satisfy
 the demands of the army and the 
SS, who felt the
 SA to be competitive. The date of the Blood Purge
 is called the 
NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES.

blood transfusions, introduction into a patient's
 body of blood from a donor, attempted with little
 success from the 18th century but made a practical
 reality in the 20th century with Karl
 
LANDSTEINER'S discovery of blood groups in
 1900-1902 and of the 
RHESUS (RH) FACTOR in 1940
 and with the subsequent development of 
BLOOD

 BANKS.

blood, toil, tears, and sweat, statement by Winston
 
CHURCHILL, speaking to Britain's House of Commons
 on May 13, 1940, for the first time as prime
 minister; from "I have nothing to offer but blood,
 toil, tears, and sweat."

Bloody Sunday (January 9,1905), the beginning of
 the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905. At the Winter
 Palace in St. Petersburg, troops fired on a crowd
 of unarmed petitioners led by priest Georgy Gapon,
 killing over 100 and wounding hundreds more, and
 thereby setting off the massive countrywide
 mutinies and demonstrations that were the
 revolution.

blue babies, infants born with heart defects, such
 as blockage in the artery linking heart and lungs
 or a hole in the heart, causing insufficient oxygen
 intake and a resulting blue pallor (cyanosis),
 retardation, and premature death. U.S. pediatric
 cardiologist Helen 
TAUSSIG first diagnosed the
 cause of the problem and with her surgeon-colleague
 Alfred 
BLALOCK developed the operation that after
 1944 saved thousands of such infants.

Blue Book, U.S. Air Force project (1948-69) to
 gather and evaluate information on sightings of
 
UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECTS.

Blue Division, the Spanish fascist division on the
 Russian front during World War II; ostensibly a
 volunteer unit, in reality it was sent by Francisco
 
FRANCO'S government to assist its German allies,
 although Spain was formally a neutral country.

Blue Eagle, the symbol of the American
 Depression-era 
NATIONAL RECOVERY ADMINISTRATION

 (NRA), carrying a blue eagle and "NRA-We do our
 part." It was introduced in a massive national
 campaign conducted in 1933.

Bluford, Guion, Jr., first Black astronaut in
 space, launched aboard the U.S. 
SPACE SHUTTLE

 CHALLENGER on its third flight, August 30, 1983.


Blum, Leon (1872-1950), French political leader,
 the first socialist party leader and the first Jew
 to become French premier. A moderate socialist, he
 broke with the communists after the 
RUSSIAN

 REVOLUTION, founded a socialist newspaper, and in
 1929 won a seat in the Chamber of Deputies. He
 became premier of the 
POPULAR FRONT coalition
 government in June 1936, then beginning a series of
 financial and labor reforms, but lost popular favor
 and resigned a year later, coming back briefly as
 premier in 1938. He opposed the 
MUNICH agreement
 and attempted to oppose 
VICHY after the fall of
 France in 1940 but was then indicted and tried by
 Vichy. The trial was suspended after the strong
 defense mounted by Blum and the other defendants,
 though he was held in jail for the rest of the war.
 He led a postwar delegation to the United States
 but otherwise retired from public life after the
 war.

Blunt, Anthony (1907-83), an eminent British art
 historian, museum director, and art adviser to the
 royal family, knighted in 1956. He had become a
 Soviet spy in the 1930s, with his Cambridge friends
 and espionage network colleagues, Kim 
PHILBY, Guy
 
BURGESS, and Donald 
MACLEAN, working with them
 and others as Soviet spies within British
 intelligence during World War II. In 1964 his role
 was discovered; he then cooperated with British
 intelligence and was secretly pardoned, keeping all
 positions and honors. In 1979 his espionage became
 public knowledge; the resulting massive publicity
 caused him to lose his positions and honors,
 including his knighthood, although his repute as an
 art historian continued to be unassailable.

Blucher, Vasili Konstantinovich (1889-1938), a
 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR partisan commander, who
 developed his forces into a Red Army division. He
 was Soviet military adviser to 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK,
 1924-27, under the name "Galin" and later commander
 of the Soviet Far Eastern Army. He was executed in
 1938 during the 
GREAT PURGE and posthumously
 rehabilitated in 1957.

Boas, Franz (1858-1942), German-American
 anthropologist, a leading figure in U.S.
 anthropology, whose work with the peoples of North
 America's northwest coast was a model for
 succeeding generations of anthropologists. His
 conclusions, teaching, and published work regarding
 the essential equality of all of the races of
 humankind provided an early and complete refutation
 of racist theories and were widely used to combat
 such Nazi theories in the 1930s and thereafter.

boat people, Vietnamese refugees attempting to flee
 by water to such nearby countries as Thailand,
 Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines; a flow
 that began after the end of the 
VIETNAM WAR in
 numbers estimated to total as many as 1 million.
 Refugees fron other countries, attempting to flee
 by water, as from Cuba and Haiti, also have been
 called boat people.

Bock, Fedor von (1880-1945), German general in both
 world wars, who commanded German forces occupying
 Austria and Czechoslovakia during the interwar
 period and led major forces during the 1939 Polish
 and 1940 French campaigns in World War II. In 1941
 he commanded German Group Center on the Russian
 Front but failed to take Moscow and was relieved of
 his command. In 1942 he commanded German armies
 moving toward 
STALINGRAD but was dismissed from
 command in July for not having moved forward as
 directly as Hitler thought he should.

Bodyguard, the Allied code name for the group of
 deceptions developed in 1942-44 to mislead the
 Germans as to the specifics of the coming invasion
 of Europe. In aggregate, the actions played an
 important role in spreading German defensive
 formations on the perimeter of Europe, and the last
 deception, code-named Fortitude, for a time helped
 to convince the Germans that the invasion was
 coming at the Pas de Calais, as they thought it
 should.

Boer War (1899-1902), conflict that began with the
 invasion of British South African territory by
 South African Republic and Orange Free State forces
 on October 12, 1899, with all major actions taking
 place between then and June 5, 1900. The Boers had
 early successes, winning battles at Stormberg,
 Magersfontein, and Colenso, and besieging Mafeking,
 Ladysmith, and Kimberley. In February 1900 the
 British moved to the offensive, taking Paardeberg
 and its Boer garrison and relieving Ladysmith. Then
 the British took Bloemfontein, capital of the
 Orange Free State, relieved Mafeking, and invaded
 the South African Republic, taking Johannesburg on
 May 31 and Pretoria on June 5. After that the Boers
 waged guerrrilla war against the British for almost
 2 years, until their surrender on May 31, 1902.
 Ultimately, British forces numbering
 450,000-500,000 men had defeated 80,000-90,000
 Boers.

Boesky, Ivan, U.S. stock market figure of the early
 1980s, a principal in the 
INSIDER TRADING SCANDAL
 of the late 1980s, who later agreed to gather
 information on his former associates and ultimately
 was imprisoned and heavily fined.

Bohr, Niels Henrik David (1885-1962), Danish
 physicist, who created the basic model of 
ATOMIC

 STRUCTURE. Building on Ernest 
RUTHERFORD'S model
 of the nuclear-centered atom, in 1913 Bohr posited
 that 
ELECTRONS circled the 
NUCLEUS in fixed
 concentric orbits, emitting energy in discrete
 units called quanta on moving from one orbit to
 another; for this model he won the 1922 Nobel Prize
 for Physics. A leading physicist working with
 
NUCLEAR FISSION in the 1930s, Bohr was smuggled
 out of German-occupied Denmark during World War II.
 He then went to 
LOS ALAMOS, where he played a
 major role in the development of the 
ATOMIC BOMB.


Bokassa, Jean Bedel (1921- ), a former French army
 officer who became a colonel in the Central African
 army and on January 1, 1966, led a Central African
 Republic military coup that deposed President David
 Dacko. Bokassa then took dictatorial power in an
 11-year tenure marked by wholesale murder, torture,
 and mutilation of opponents and even of
 schoolchildren, generating worldwide condemnation.
 On December 4, 1977, he had himself installed as
 Emperor Bokassa I; on September 20, 1979, he was
 deposed by the forces of David Dacko with French
 army help; he took refuge in Libya and then France.
 He was sentenced to death in absentia, returned
 home for unexplained reasons in October 1986, was
 again sentenced to death, and ultimately had his
 sentence commuted to life imprisonment.

Bolsheviks, the Russian revolutionary Marxist group
 led by Vladimir Illich 
LENIN, which began in 1903
 as a dissident group within the Russian
 Social-Democratic Workers' Party, formed itself
 into a separate Russian Social-Democratic Workers'
 Party (Bolsheviks) in 1912, and in the 
OCTOBER

 REVOLUTION of 1917 took control of the 
RUSSIAN

 REVOLUTION. The term bolshevik means "majority," a
 label adopted by the group when, for a short time
 in 1903, it won votes on certain intraparty issues.
 In 1918 the party renamed itself the Russian
 Communist Party (Bolsheviks), in 1925 the All-Union
 Communist Party (Bolsheviks), and in 1952 the
 Communist Party of the Soviet Union, dropping the
 Bolshevik descriptor.

Bond, Julian (1940- ), U.S. political leader, in
 1960 a founder of the 
STUDENT NON-VIOLENT

 COORDINATING COMMITTEE (SNCC) and its
 communications director 1960-66. He was elected to
 the Georgia state legislature in 1965 but denied
 his seat because of his opposition to the 
VIETNAM

 WAR; he was seated after a Supreme Court decision
 in his favor.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich (1906-45), German Protestant
 minister who became a leader of the German
 anti-Nazi resistance. He was arrested in 1943 and
 murdered in a Nazi 
CONCENTRATION CAMP in 1945,
 after having been accused of complicity in the 1944
 army officers' plot to assassinate 
HITLER.

Bonnie and Clyde, Bonnie 
PARKER and Clyde
 
BARROW, U.S. murderers and armed robbers of the
 1930s, who became folk heroes.

Bonus Marchers, the "Bonus Army" of an estimated
 20,000 American World War I veterans and their
 families, who in 1932, at the depth of the 
GREAT

 DEPRESSION, encamped in and around Washington, D.
 C., demanding immediate payment of the veterans'
 bonuses legislated in 1924 and by law payable in
 1945. Congress refused the demand, but
 approximately 5,000 Bonus Marchers remained after
 Congress adjourned, many of them encamped at
 Anacostia Flats. In mid-July a clash between police
 and some of the veterans became violent, and the
 police killed two. President Herbert 
HOOVER then
 called out the army, which came in the person of
 Army Chief of Staff Douglas 
MACARTHUR at the head
 of the Third Cavalry, two infantry regiments, six
 tanks, and a machine gun detachment, all in full
 battle dress. MacArthur ordered the violent
 dispersal of the veterans, whom he regarded as a
 revolutionary mob, and the burning of their
 encampments; Hoover publicly approved, and in the
 eyes of the nation lost much of his remaining
 prestige as the great humanitarian who had
 organized the American war relief effort after
 World War I.

Bork, Robert Heron (1927- ), U.S. lawyer, law
 professor 1962-73 and 1977-81, a strict
 constructionist and conservative legal theorist who
 was appointed U.S. solicitor-general in 1973 by
 president Richard M. 
NIXON. During the
 
WATERGATE affair he acceded to Nixon's "
SATURDAY

 NIGHT MASSACRE" request to fire Special Prosecutor
 Archibald Cox and Deputy Attorney General William
 Ruckelshaus, after Attorney General Elliot
 Richardson had refused to do so and had resigned.
 In 1982 Bork was a Ronald 
REAGAN appointee to the
 Court of Appeals. In July 1986 he was nominated as
 an associate justice of the Supreme Court by Reagan
 but was refused the nomination by the Senate after
 televised committee hearings and a major
 confirmation fight. In January 1988 he resigned
 from the Court of Appeals.

Borlaug, Norman (1914- ), U.S. plant pathologist
 and agricultural scientist, who spurred the
 so-called 
GREEN REVOLUTION. After early work on
 plant diseases and pesticides, Borlaug worked in
 Mexico, 1944-60, under Rockefeller Foundation
 auspices, developing hardy, high-yield grains
 suitable to a wide range of climates. In the 1960s
 and 1970s these were planted in many undeveloped
 countries, significantly easing world hunger and
 earning him the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize.

Bormann, Martin (1900- ), German Nazi administrator
 and chief personal assistant to Adolf 
HITLER, who
 since World War II has been widely-but
 inconclusively-reported to be living in South
 America .

Borodin, Mikhail Markovich (1884-1951), a Russian
 socialist organizer, in exile in the United States
 1906-18, who returned to the Soviet Union after the
 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION, then becoming a 
COMINTERN
 representative. He was chief Comintern advisor to
 
SUN YAT-SEN and the 
KUOMINTANG 1923-27. After
 the Kuomintang-Communist split and the beginning of
 the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR in 1927, he was recalled to
 the Soviet Union and worked as a Soviet official
 until 1949. He was arrested in 
STALIN'S
 anti-Jewish purge of 1949 and died a prisoner in
 Siberia.

Bosch Gavino, Juan (1909- ), Dominican Republic
 writer and socialist, a major opponent of dictator
 Rafael 
TRUJILLO, who lived in exile 1937-61 and
 returned to be elected president of his country in
 1962. He was deposed in a 1963 military coup and in
 1966 was defeated for the presidency by Joaquin
 
BALAGUER after the 1965-66 
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

 CIVIL WAR. His party, the Dominican Revolutionary
 party, boycotted the 1970 and 1974 elections, and
 Bosch split away from it to form the Dominican
 Liberation party in 1974. He ran for the presidency
 and lost in 1978 and 1982.

Bose, Subhas Chandra (1897-1945), Indian
 nationalist leader, who generally favored armed
 insurrection against British rule in India, rather
 than the nonviolent approach fostered by Mahatma
 
GANDHI and the main leadership of the 
CONGRESS

 PARTY. During World War II he fought beside the
 Japanese and Germans, heading the Indian National
 Army, which fought on the Japanese side in
 Southeast Asia. He died in an aircraft accident
 shortly after the end of the war.

Boskin, Michael Jay (1945- ), U.S. economist and
 university professor, named chairman of the White
 House Council of Economic Advisors by President
 George 
BUSH on December 6, 1988.

Bosnia-Herzegovina, a province of the 
OTTOMAN

 EMPIRE, occupied by Austria-Hungary in 1878 and
 formally annexed in 1908, precipitating a Balkan
 crisis and threat of war between Serbia and
 Austria-Hungary that might draw Russia in on
 Serbia's side, leading to a general war. The
 dispute was part of the run-up to World War I.
 Bosnian members of the 
BLACK HAND assassinated
 Austro-Hungarian archduke 
FRANCIS FERDINAND at
 
SARAJEVO in 1914 and set off World War I.

Boston Police Strike (September 1919), a strike by
 much of the Boston, Massachusetts, police
 department after suspensions because of moves
 toward union affiliation. Boston's mayor called out
 State Guard members living in Boston; Governor
 Calvin 
COOLIDGE then called out the balance of
 the State Guard and asked for a commitment of
 federal troops if necessary. The strike was broken.
 All of the strikers were dismissed, and Coolidge
 became a national hero, his handling of the strike
 making a great contribution to his presidential
 nomination and election in 1920.

Boston Strangler, media-developed name for mass
 murderer Albert H. 
DESALVO.

Botha, Louis (1862-1919), South African farmer, who
 became a soldier and ultimately a guerrilla general
 during the 
BOER WAR. Going into politics, he
 became prime minister of the Transvaal (1907-10)
 and then first prime minister of the Union of South
 Africa (1910-19).

Botha, Pieter Willem (1916- ), South African
 political leader, who rose through the ranks of the
 Afrikaner party, winning his first parliamentary
 seat in 1948. He moved with his party into the
 ruling 
NATIONAL PARTY in 1951, became defense
 minister in 1966, prime minister in 1978, and state
 president in 1984. After an illness he resigned his
 party leadership in early 1989. As leader of South
 Africa he used all available tools and institutions
 to foster the continuance of white rule,
 unhesitatingly using mass imprisonments,
 suppression of the press, and wide-scale police and
 army violence directed at demonstrators.
 Simultaneously, he promised to dismantle
 substantial portions of the system of 
APARTHEID
 and in some periods made such ameliorative moves as
 did not in substance alter the realities of South
 African racism.

Botswana (Republic of Botswana), until 1966 the
 British protectorate of Bechuanaland. On September
 30, 1966, it became Botswana, an independent state
 and member of the 
COMMONWEALTH. A democracy,
 Botswana was led by president Seretse 
KHAMA from
 independence until his death in 1980.

Bouganville campaign (1943-44), World War II
 assault by American troops in the Solomon Islands,
 securing a substantial beachhead on the island of
 Bouganville in October and November 1943, then
 developing a naval base and airfields there.
 Japanese forces remaining on the island engaged in
 a long campaign to wipe out the beachhead but
 failed; the island was then secured by the Allies
 in a series of actions during 1944.

Boumedienne, Houari (Mohammed Boukharouba;
 1927-78), Algerian teacher, who joined the 
FLN
 (
NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT) in 1954, fought as
 Oran regional guerrilla commander 1955-56, and was
 rebel army chief of staff 1960-62. After the
 Algerian-French agreement of 1962, he took his army
 into Algeria, backed Ahmed 
BEN BELLA'S new FLN
 government, and became defense minister and in 1963
 deputy prime minister. In 1965 he toppled Ben Bella
 in a coup and imprisoned him. Boumedienne then
 ruled Algeria absolutely until his death of natural
 causes in 1978, eliminating all opposition and
 further developing state socialism, with emphasis
 on modernization and industrial and infrastructural
 development.

Bourbaki, Nicolas, pseudonym for a group of
 mathematicians, mostly French, who began publishing
 highly influential mathematical works in 1939.

Bourguiba, Habib (1903- ), Tunisian lawyer, a
 founder of the Neo-Destour party in 1934; he was
 its leader and the leader of the Tunisian
 independence movement thereafter. Peaceful tactics
 gave way to guerrilla war after the arrests of
 Bourguiba and other leaders in 1952; in July 1955,
 France granted autonomy to Tunisia. Full
 independence was achieved in March 1956, with
 Bourguiba as first premier; he became first
 president of the new republic in March 1957 and led
 Tunisia until resigning under pressure in l987. As
 president he was a democratic socialist who
 fostered economic, political, and social
 modernization, including considerable focus on the
 development of a government of laws, on civil
 liberties, and on the rights of women.

Boxer Protocol, the terms forced on China after the
 
BOXER REBELLION, signed on September 7, 1901.

Boxer Rebellion (1900), conflict that started as a
 widespread antiforeign, anti-Manchu set of riots in
 1899 and in 1900 became a joint Manchu-Boxer war
 against the foreign powers that had been attacking
 and exploiting China since the end of the Opium War
 in 1842. In June 1900, after an international force
 headed for Peking from Tientsin had been repulsed,
 Boxer forces entered Peking and began a
 2-month-long siege of the foreign legations. On
 June 21 the Manchu dowager empress joined them,
 declaring war against the foreign powers. On August
 4, a 20,000-strong international force started from
 Tientsin, lifting the siege on August 14, then
 burning and looting Peking. The punitive 
BOXER

 PROTOCOL, signed by the Chinese government and 11
 foreign powers on September 7, 1901, provided for,
 among other things, huge indemnities, the execution
 of 10 high Chinese officials, and the garrisoning
 of the Peking legations, thereby greatly worsening
 the position of the Manchus and bringing the
 
CHINESE REVOLUTION even closer.

Boyle, W. A. "Tony," former United Mine Workers
 president, who was convicted of arranging the
 December 31, 1959, murders of union opponent Joseph
 
YABLONSKI and his family.

Bradley, Omar (1893-1981), U.S. officer who saw
 service in World War I, was a corps commander early
 in World War II, commanded the U.S. First Army
 during the 
NORMANDY invasion, and then commanded
 the U.S. Twelfth Army as it fought its way across
 Europe into Germany. During the postwar period he
 was U.S. Army chief of staff, first chairman of the
 Joint Chiefs of Staff, and a five-star general.

Bragg, William Henry (1862-1942) and 
WILLIAM

 LAWRENCE BRAGG (1890-1971), British physicists,
 father and Australian-born son, who were inspired
 by Max von 
LAUE'S work to make key developments
 in the field of 
X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY in the
 1910s. They were the first to measure the
 wavelengths of 
X-RAYS, winning the 1915 Nobel
 Prize for Physics, the only father-and-son pair
 ever to do so.

brain death, absence of electrical activity in the
 brain, as measured on an 
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH;
 first used as a clinical definition of death,
 instead of heart stoppage, by the French Academy of
 Medicine in 1966 and widely adopted since then. A
 person may be considered brain dead even though the
 heart is kept pumping and most organs functioning
 by means of various machines, such as respirators;
 that has led to complicated questions about a
 physician's responsibility to keep a patient alive
 by whatever means and a patient's 
RIGHT TO DIE.


brain trust, an informal group of advisors to
 Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT during and after the
 1932 election campaign, some of whom were academics
 and therefore popularly called "brains." The
 academics in the group included Rexford G. Tugwell,
 Adolf A. Berle, Jr., and Raymond Moley; they had
 considerable influence on the specific proposals
 Roosevelt advanced to deal with the 
GREAT

 DEPRESSION, and on the legislation passed during
 the Roosevelt era, especially during the first
 
HUNDRED DAYS.

Brandeis, Louis Dembitz (1856-1941), U.S. lawyer,
 who pursued a sharply liberal and independent
 political and legal course before being appointed
 by Woodrow 
WILSON to the Supreme Court in 1916;
 he was confirmed only after long hearings. The
 first Jewish Supreme Court Justice, Brandeis was
 one of the leading legal figures of his time,
 although in most instances a dissenter during his
 Court career.

Brandt, Willy (Carl Herbert Frahm; 1913- ), German
 socialist and political leader, who was forced to
 flee Germany in 1933 and who worked as a journalist
 in Norway and in resistance movement activities
 during World War II. He returned to Germany in
 1945, was in the West German assembly 1949-57, and
 was mayor of West Berlin 1957-66, in office when
 the 
BERLIN WALL was built in 1961. In 1964 he
 became chairman of the Social Democratic party; he
 was foreign minister 1966-69 and chancellor
 1969-74, resigning when one of his aides was
 exposed as an East German spy, although Brandt had
 not known this. As chancellor he attempted a
 partial rapprochement with East Germany and the
 Soviet bloc, signing treaties with the Soviet Union
 and Poland while at the same time developing closer
 ties with the 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY and encouraging
 moves toward nuclear disarmament. He was awarded
 the 1971 Nobel Peace Prize.

Brauchitsch, Walther von (1881-1948), German
 officer, who saw service in both world wars,
 becoming commander-in-chief of the army in 1938 and
 directing the early German successes in World War
 II. Although he directed the invasion of the Soviet
 Union, he became convinced in late 1941 that German
 forces should be withdrawn from Moscow and so
 recommended to Adolf Hitler, who was enraged at the
 suggestion and relieved von Brauchitsch of his
 command. He died in 1948, a short while before he
 was to go on trial for alleged war crimes.

Braudel, Fernand (1902-85), French historian, a
 leading member of the Annales school, which studied
 societies and groups of societies as whole entities
 in an attempt to reach and understand deep and
 commonly experienced developmental trends
 throughout the world. His first major work, The
 Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the
 Age of Philip I, was written, without his notes and
 research materials, while a prisoner of war during
 World War II.

Braun, Eva (1912-45), German shop girl who became
 Adolf 
HITLER'S mistress and, at the end, his
 wife, just before their joint suicide in Berlin.

Braun, Wernher Magnus Maximilian von (1912-77),
 German-American 
ROCKET expert, who headed the
 German research teams at 
PEENEMUNDE that
 developed the 
V-1 AND V-2 BOMBS used in the
 terror bombings of Great Britain, starting in June
 1944. Escaping prosecution after the war, he
 instead became one of the key people in the
 development of U.S. 
MISSILE and space
 capabilities, helping to create 
INTERCONTINENTAL

 BALLISTIC MISSILES (ICBMs) in the early 1950s;
 using a modified V-2 rocket to help boost into
 orbit the first 
U.S. SATELLITE, Explorer 1, in
 1958; and becoming an administrator of the
 
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
 (NASA) in 1970.

Brave New World (1932), an Aldous Huxley novel
 portraying a future "Utopia" in which an
 omnipresent bureaucratic state controls human
 development and social organization. The book was
 in particular an attack on the 
EUGENICS theories
 of the time, foreshadowing very real 
GENETIC

 ENGINEERING concerns later in the century.

Brawley, Tawana, a Black 15-year-old from
 Wappingers Falls, New York, who charged that on
 November 24, 1987, she had been kidnapped, raped,
 and otherwise mistreated by a group of six White
 men; she was found on November 28, wrapped in a
 plastic trash bag and with racist comments written
 on her body. The sensational nature of the charges,
 their racial content, and the public charges of
 racism and official coverup made by Brawley's
 advisors, including the Reverend Al Sharpton and
 lawyers Alton Maddox and C. Vernon Mason, fresh
 from their participation in the 
HOWARD BEACH
 case, brought massive, protracted publicity. After
 7 months of grand jury hearings, at which Brawley
 refused to testify, the jury concluded in October
 1988 that she had lied; investigations of possible
 misconduct by Brawley's advisers continued after
 the case had been closed by the jury.

Brazil circus fire (December 17, 1961), a
 deliberately set circus tent fire at Niteroi, near
 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, that killed 323 and injured
 an estimated 800 more; most of the dead and injured
 were children.

Bremer, Arthur Herman (1950- ), man who shot and
 paralyzed Alabama governor George 
WALLACE in
 Laurel, Maryland, on May 15, 1972, and was
 subsequently sentenced to a prison term of 53
 years.

Brennan, William Joseph, Jr. (1906- ), U.S. lawyer,
 who was a New Jersey superior court judge 1949-50,
 appellate division judge 1950-52, and state supreme
 court judge 1952-56. He was appointed by president
 Dwight D. 
EISENHOWER to the U.S. Supreme Court in
 1956. Brennan became a major liberal figure in his
 almost four decades on the Court, often writing the
 majority decision during the 1960s, in such
 landmark decisions as 
NEW YORK TIMES COMPANY V.

 SULLIVAN and 
BAKER V. CARR. In his later years
 he became part of the Court's liberal minority.

Brereton, Lewis Hyde (1890-1967), U.S. aviator, who
 saw service in World War I and was commander of
 U.S. air forces in the Philippines at the outbreak
 of World War II. The bulk of his planes were caught
 and destroyed on the ground at 
CLARK FIELD on
 December 8, 1941. Later in the war he commanded
 Allied air forces in the European theater.

Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (March 3, 1918), a treaty
 between the Soviet government and the 
CENTRAL

 POWERS, taking the Soviets out of World War I.
 Negotiated by Leon 
TROTSKY, the treaty provided
 for major losses of territory in western Russia and
 the Ukraine and demobilization of the Russian
 armies. It was clearly a ruse to gain time and was
 repudiated by the Soviet government immediately
 after Germany's defeat by the 
ALLIES, to be
 superseded by the treaties made at 
VERSAILLES and
 elsewhere following World War I.

Bretton Woods Conference (July 1944), major
 international planning meeting, held at Bretton
 Woods, New Hampshire, regarding post-World War II
 financial stabilization, at which the
 
INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND

 DEVELOPMENT and the 
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
 were established.

Breuil, Henry Edouard Prosper (1877-1961), French
 archaeologist, paleontologist, and priest who
 specialized in Paleolithic art, such as that in the
 caves of Altamira and 
LASCAUX. Abbe Breuil copied
 the cave paintings, analyzed their style and color,
 and placed them in the context of known
 archeological finds, in the process deepening our
 understanding of prehistoric culture, notably in
 Four Hundred Centuries of Cave Art (1952).

Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich (1906-82), Soviet
 metallurgist, who became a Communist party official
 in 1938 and was a political officer during World
 War II, rising to the rank of major general. After
 holding several party positions during the postwar
 period he became a Central Committee member in
 1952. A Khrushchev supporter, he held several major
 positions during the Khrushchev period, including
 that of Soviet president, and was first secretary
 of his party when Khrushchev was ousted in October
 1964; he succeeded as party leader. He shared
 "collective leadership" with Aleksei 
KOSYGIN
 during the balance of the 1960s and emerged as
 leader of both party and country in the early
 1970s; he formally became both Communist party
 general secretary and Soviet president in 1977 and
 died in office. A conservative, he presided over
 the end of Khrushchev's period of 
THAW,
 reimposing tighter party control over dissidents
 but not going back to Stalinist mass repression,
 exile, and murder. Internationally, he pursued
 worldwide Soviet power aims while to some degree
 supporting 
DETENTE and arms limitation; in his
 time both superpowers continued their massive arms
 race. He bore the major responsility for the
 ultimately failed Soviet invasion and occupation of
 
AFGHANISTAN.

Brezhnev doctrine, the proposition that Soviet
 intervention in the affairs of any other Communist
 state is justified when communism is threatened in
 that state. This position was first published in a
 Pravda article on September 26, 1968, and argued by
 Leonid 
BREZHNEV speaking to a Polish Communist
 party congress on November 13, 1968. The doctrine
 was advanced to justify the August 1968 Soviet
 invasion of 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA, and repudiated during
 the 
GORBACHEV era.

Briand, Aristide (1862-1932), French political
 leader, who in his socialist years founded
 L'Humanite (1904) with Jean 
JAURES and then went
 on to a public career that included 11 terms as
 premier of France (1909-10, 1915-17, 1921-22, and
 several times in the late 1920s). He was also
 foreign minister through many governments, from
 1925 to 1932. He strongly supported the 
LEAGUE OF

 NATIONS from its inception; in the late 1920s he
 achieved the 
LOCARNO (1925) and 
KELLOGG-BRIAND
 (1928) pacts, and in the early 1930s he spoke out
 for European federation. He received a Nobel Peace
 Prize in 1926.

Bridges, Harry (1901- ), Australian-born seaman,
 who became a U.S. labor leader, beginning with his
 work as an 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD (IWW)
 organizer in the early 1920s. In 1933 he organized
 San Francisco longshoremen into a local of the
 International Longshoreman's Association (ILA), and
 in 1934 he led the longshoremen's strike that
 turned into the San Francisco general strike. In
 1937 he led Pacific Coast ILA locals into the newly
 formed 
CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (CIO)
 and became president of the new International
 Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union (ILWU),
 remaining the union's president until 1977, when he
 retired. Starting in1938, the federal government
 tried for 17 years to deport him as an alleged
 Communist, in a series of ultimately unsuccessful
 legal actions.

brinkmanship, term describing the 1950s 
COLD WAR
 tactics of U.S. secretary of state John Foster
 
DULLES, who spoke of having taken the United
 States to the "brink of war" with the Soviet Union
 on several occasions and viewed his willingness to
 do so as a necessary tactic. His views on the
 matter were highly controversial, his detractors
 calling them little short of madness in a nuclear
 age, his supporters regarding them as quite
 realistic.

Brink's robbery, highly publicized robbery
 occurring on January 17, 1950, at Brink's North
 Terminal Garage in Boston. The 11 robbers netted
 $2.7 million; all were later caught. In 1980 the
 theft and its aftermath were the subject of a film,
 The Brink's Job.

Britain, Battle of (August-October 1940), the early
 World War II air battle for control of the skies
 over Britain; part of Hitler's 
OPERATION SEA

 LION, which required air supremacy as an essential
 component of that invasion plan. British 
RADAR
 and resulting superior ability to concentrate
 response, coupled with stronger skills and
 motivation, overcame German numerical superiority.
 In late August and early September, however,
 concentrated German attacks on British airfields
 inflicted heavy damage on the British air force.
 But the Germans then changed their strategy,
 focusing on the terror bombing of London, wrecking
 much of that city, killing thousands of
 civilians-and probably saving Britain, for then the
 remaining British air strength was brought to bear
 over London. By the end of September the Germans
 were forced to halt daylight bombing and go over to
 night bombing alone. The Battle of Britain was won.


British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC),
 quasi-public British authority, designed to prevent
 "commercialization" of radio. Chartered in 1927, it
 was given a monopoly on 
RADIO and later
 
TELEVISION broadcasting, under the early
 directorship of John 
REITH. It is widely known
 for its foreign language services, begun in 1938,
 though somewhat cut back in the leaner 1970s and
 1980s. Private commercial firms began broadcasting
 in Britain in television in 1954 and in radio in
 1972.

British Expeditionary Forces (BEF), in two world
 wars, the first major British fighting force in
 France. In World War I a British Expeditionary
 Force of approximately 100,000 men, the vanguard of
 millions more to come, saw its first major action
 at 
MONS on August 23, 1914. In World War II a
 British Expeditionary Force of approximately
 400,000 men was in France in May 1940; over 200,000
 British soldiers were evacuated from 
DUNKIRK, May
 28-June 4, 1940, returning in force to Normandy on
 
D-DAY, June 6, 1944.

British Somaliland, a former British African
 colony, that became part of independent 
SOMALIA
 in 1960.

British Togoland, the western portion of
 
TOGOLAND, which became part of the new nation of
 
GHANA on March 6, 1957.

British Union of Fascists, the British Nazi
 organization created and led by Oswald 
MOSLEY
 from 1932.

Brooke, Edward William (1919- ), U.S. lawyer who in
 1966 became the first Black elected U.S. senator in
 American history. He was Massachusetts attorney
 general 1963-66, and served in the U.S. senate
 1967-79.

Browder, Earl Russell (1891-1973), U.S. socialist,
 Communist, and editor, who became a member of the
 Communist party in 1921, thereafter becoming a
 leading Communist during the 1920s, and working
 with the 
COMINTERN in China in the late 1920s. He
 was general secretary of the 
COMMUNIST PARTY OF

 THE UNITED STATES 1930-45 and that party's
 presidential candidate in 1936 and 1940, during the
 period in which the Soviet and other Communist
 parties around the world advocated a 
UNITED FRONT
 against fascism. He was imprisoned in 1940, during
 the period of the 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT, a period in
 which he and other Communists opposed support for
 the Allies in World War II. After the invasion of
 the Soviet Union he supported U.S. entry into the
 war and the American war effort, in 1944 initiating
 the temporary dissolution of his party and its
 replacement with the Communist Political
 Association. In 1946, as the 
COLD WAR was
 beginning, his party's position changed again, the
 Communist party was formed once more, and he was
 expelled for his most recent policies.

Brown, H. Rap (1943- ), U.S. Black civil rights
 activist, who in 1967 succeeded Stokely 
CARMICHAL
 as chairman of the 
STUDENT NON-VIOLENT

 COORDINATING COMMITTEE (SNCC). He jumped bail
 while appealing a federal firearms conviction, was
 later wounded during an armed robbery, and was
 subsequently imprisoned.

Brown, Louise (1978- ), world's first 
TEST-TUBE

 BABY, delivered by cesarean section on July 25,
 1978, by British gynecologist-obstetrician Patrick
 
STEPTOE, who had developed the procedure of 
IN

 VITRO FERTILIZATION.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), a
 landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision outlawing
 public school segregation; a unanimous opinion
 written by Chief Justice Earl 
WARREN. The Court's
 earlier Plessy v. Ferguson "separate but equal"
 doctrine was abandoned, and school segregation was
 declared unconstitutional, ushering in a new era in
 American education and providing powerful impetus
 to the 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT.

Brownsville Raid (August 13, 1906), heavy gunfire
 from unidentified sources killed one white civilian
 and wounded  another in Brownsville, Texas, on the
 night of August 13, 1906, after racial tension in
 the town following the stationing of Black soldiers
 in the area had caused incidents and the confining
 of the soldiers to barracks. Without any trial the
 soldiers of Company B were found collectively
 guilty by the U.S. Army, and all 167 soldiers were
 dismissed, on the direct order of President
 Theodore 
ROOSEVELT, for refusing to name those
 "guilty" of the shootings. A Congressional
 investigation in the early 1970s exonerated the
 soldiers of Company B.

Broz, Josip, the given name of Yugoslav Communist
 leader 
TITO.

Brunei, until 1984 a British protectorate. On
 January 1, 1984, it became an independent state,
 headed by Sultan Muda Hassanal Bolkiah, remaining
 by treaty under British military protection.

Brusilov Offensive (June 4-September 20, 1916), a
 powerful World War I Russian summer offensive that
 broke through Austrian lines in Poland but
 ultimately failed, as German reinforcements
 arrived. Casualties totaled an estimated 1 million
 on each side. The heavy Russian losses spurred
 Russian army disaffection and helped bring about
 the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION of 1917.

Bryan, William Jennings (1860-1925), U.S. lawyer,
 Nebraska Democratic congressman (1891-95),
 three-time unsuccessful candidate for the
 presidency (1896, 1900, and 1908), and the leading
 populist leader and orator of his time. His
 best-remembered address was the "cross of gold"
 speech at the Chicago Democratic Convention of
 1896, which helped win him the nomination. He was
 defeated by William 
MCKINLEY in 1896 and 1900 and
 by William Howard 
TAFT in 1908. He was Woodrow
 
WILSON'S secretary of state (1913-15) but
 resigned in opposition to administration measures
 he saw as leading the United States into World War
 I. Late in his life he became a leading
 fundamentalist Christian speaker and writer and was
 active in the prosecution of the antievolution
 
SCOPES TRIAL in Tennessee in the summer of 1925.
 He died 5 days after the trial's end.

bubble chamber, device filled with heated,
 pressurized liquid, used for tracking the path of
 subatomic 
PARTICLES and 
RADIATION, invented in
 1952 by Donald 
GLASER. The bubble chamber was
 widely used by many scientists, such as Luis
 
ALVAREZ, allowing more flexibility than the
 
CLOUD CHAMBER.

Bucharest, Treaty of (1913), agreement ending the
 second of the two 
BALKAN WARS.

Buchenwald, a German 
CONCENTRATION CAMP near
 Weimar; one of the earliest of such camps, it was
 used from 1937 to imprison anti-Nazi Germans,
 German Jews, and other political prisoners and
 later to house a wide variety of prisoners from all
 over Europe. Buchenwald was especially notable for
 the inhuman medical experiments carried on there by
 Nazi doctors and other Nazi scientists.

Buckley, William, one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, the CIA station chief in Beirut, who was
 kidnapped on March 16, 1984. He was tortured and
 murdered by his captors during 1985 despite strong
 U.S. efforts to secure his release, which included
 some of the concessions leading to the 
IRAN-CONTRA

 AFFAIR.

Budenny, Semen Mikhailovich (1883-1973), leading
 Soviet cavalry general during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL

 WAR and 
SOVIET-POLISH WAR, who later became a
 marshal of the Soviet Union and a member of the
 Soviet presidium. Having escaped the late 1930s
 purges that destroyed the main leadership of the
 Soviet armed forces, he was in 1941 the wholly
 ineffectual commander of the Soviet southwestern
 armies, losing Kiev and yielding an estimated 1
 million prisoners to the advancing Germans.

Buffalo Creek Dam collapse (February 26, 1972), the
 collapse of a Pittston Coal Company slag heap in
 West Virginia that had been functioning as a dam,
 costing an estimated 125 lives and causing much
 property damage.

Bukharin, Nicolai Ivanovich (1888-1938), an early
 
BOLSHEVIK writer and theoretician who closely
 collaborated with 
LENIN. In exile from 1911, he
 returned to Russia from America after the 
FEBRUARY

 REVOLUTION, was a leading Bolshevik throughout the
 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION and the civil war that
 followed, and was the second president of the
 
COMINTERN. In the late 1920s he fell into
 disfavor with 
STALIN but regained favor in the
 mid-1930s. In 1937, during the 
GREAT PURGE, he
 was arrested and accused of treason. He was
 executed in 1938; 50 years later, in 1988, he was
 posthumously rehabilitated by the Soviet
 government.

Bulganin, Nikolai Aleksandrovich (1895-1975),
 Soviet official, a Communist from 1917, who worked
 for the 
CHEKA, as a factory manager, in the
 Moscow city administration, and in several other
 administrative positions during the interwar
 period, in 1939 becoming a full member of the
 Communist party central committee. He saw service
 as an army political administrator during World War
 II and became defense minister, a deputy premier,
 and a 
POLITBURO member in 1948. He was Soviet
 premier 1955-58, opposed Nikita 
KHRUSHCHEV after
 1956, and lost all positions in the intraparty
 struggles of 1958, after which he retired.

Bulgaria (People's Republic of Bulgaria), until
 1908, part of the Ottoman Empire, though from 1878
 substantially autonomous, Bulgaria was a loser in
 the 
SECOND BALKAN WAR and in two World Wars,
 having sided with Germany in both. The country was
 occupied by Soviet troops in 1944, and formally
 became a thoroughly orthodox one-party Communist
 state on December 4, 1947, led by Georgi
 
DIMITROV. It was then part of the Communist bloc,
 led by Todor 
ZHIVKOV from 1954. In 1989, with the
 enormous changes generated in Eastern Europe in the
 
GORBACHEV era, a Bulgarian pro-democracy movement
 arose, which swept Zhivkov out of office in
 November, developed powerful pro-democracy
 demonstrations in Sofia and other Bulgarian cities,
 and sought free elections.

Bulge, Battle of the (Battle of the Ardennes;
 December 1944-January 1945), the World War II
 German winter counteroffensive in the Ardennes, a
 surprise attack beginning on December 16, by 25
 divisions, including 11 armored divisions, against
 much smaller U.S. forces. The German attack pushed
 the Americans back, surrounding some in the
 process, and at its peak it created a salient
 (bulge) 50 miles deep on the western front. But to
 the north, Allied forces held; and to the south,
 General George 
PATTON'S American Third Army
 turned and attacked, reaching besieged American
 troops at 
BASTOGNE on December 26. Severely
 damaged German forces began withdrawing from the
 salient in early January; by late January the
 salient had been wiped out. The Germans had used up
 much of their available reserve forces in the
 attack; after the Battle of the Bulge there was no
 real hope of stopping the Allied advance in the
 west.

Bull Moose Party, the popular name for the
 
PROGRESSIVE PARTY, which unsuccessfully ran
 Theodore 
ROOSEVELT for the presidency in 1912. He
 proclaimed himself to be as strong as a "bull
 moose," hence the popular name of the party.

Bulow, Bernhard von (1849-1929), German chancellor
 1900-09, who pursued German imperial aims and built
 German armed strength, in particular the German
 navy, in the period before World War I. In the
 process he alienated other possible strong European
 allies, assuring that the war, when it came, would
 be a two-front war for Germany.

Bunche, Ralph Johnson (1904-71), U.S. teacher,
 political scientist, and diplomat, who moved from
 the state department to the 
UNITED NATIONS in
 1946, then became deputy to Folke 
BERNADOTTE,
 chief UN mediator for Palestine. After Bernadotte's
 assassination in 1948 by 
STERN GANG terrorists,
 he became chief mediator, concluding Arab-Israeli
 peace negotiations, becoming a world figure, and in
 1950 gaining a Nobel Peace Prize for his work. From
 then on he carried out a series of major and often
 very difficult peacemaking missions on behalf of
 the UN throughout the world, from 1955 as a UN
 undersecretary and from 1967 until his retirement
 in 1971 as UN undersecretary-general.
 Simultaneously, he was one of the leading Black
 Americans of his time and a leader in many of the
 
CIVIL RIGHTS struggles of the period, working
 closely with 
MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., and other
 leaders of that movement.

Bundy, McGeorge (1919- ), U.S. political scientist
 and university professor, an advisor to President
 John F. 
KENNEDY and special assistant for
 national security affairs 1961-66; he played a
 major role in developing U.S. interventionist
 foreign policy. He helped develop the 1961 
BAY OF

 PIGS INVASION of Cuba, the 1965 
DOMINICAN

 REPUBLIC INTERVENTION, and deepened U.S.
 involvement in the 
VIETNAM WAR. He later
 moderated his views on the Vietnam War, and during
 the 1980s favored increased U.S.-Soviet negotiation
 toward arms limitation. He was head of the Ford
 Foundation 1966-79.

Bundy, Theodore "Ted," U.S. mass murderer, executed
 in Florida on January 24, 1989, after having
 received death sentences for three 1978 Florida
 murders. Ex-law student Bundy had delayed execution
 of his sentence for a decade; in his final days he
 confessed to at least 16 other murders and was
 thought to have committed many more.

Burger, Warren Earl (1907- ), U.S. lawyer, a judge
 on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of
 Columbia 1955-69, who was in 1969 appointed chief
 justice of the U.S. Supreme Court by president
 Richard M. 
NIXON, retiring in 1986. Burger
 introduced major administrative initiatives aimed
 at speeding the work of the Court, functioned as a
 critic of the legal profession during his tenure,
 and was a generally conservative influence on the
 Court, attempting to limit and in some instances
 reverse the course developed by the far more
 liberal 
WARREN court of the 1960s.

Burgess, Guy (1911-63), British journalist and spy,
 who was exposed in 1951 as actually having been a
 Soviet spy since his Cambridge days in the 1930s,
 along with his college friends and Soviet espionage
 network colleagues, Kim 
PHILBY, Anthony 
BLUNT,
 and Donald 
MACLEAN. He and Maclean escaped to the
 Soviet Union in 1951, thereafter continuing to work
 in Soviet intelligence.

Burkina Faso, until 1959, a French colony, which on
 August 5, 1960, became the independent Republic of
 
UPPER VOLTA, then enduring a long series of
 military coups, punctuated by brief periods of
 democracy. The country's name was changed to
 Burkina Faso on August 4, 1984.

Burma (Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma),
 until 1937 part of British colonial India; then it
 was made a separate political entity but still
 under British rule. Burma was occupied by Japanese
 forces during World War II. It became an
 independent democratic state on January 4, 1948,
 led by prime minister 
U NU. In 1958 the country
 fell into the hands of military dictator Ne 
WIN,
 who developed a long one-party dictatorship.

Burma, Battle of (January-May 1942), early World
 War II campaign following the uncontested Japanese
 occupation of Thailand in December 1941; Japanese
 forces invaded Burma on January 12, 1942. They met
 and defeated defending British-led forces at
 Moulmein in late January and again on the Sittang
 River in late February. Chinese reinforcements
 arrived in mid-March, but a renewed Japanese
 offensive in late March drove the defenders back
 again, and after a series of engagements the
 Japanese took Mandalay on May 1, the main defense
 forces then retreating all the way to Imphal. There
 they prepared for the defense of India while much
 of the surviving Chinese force fled to Yunnan.

Burma, Liberation of (January-August 1945),
 retaking of Burma by the Allies in World War II.
 British forces commanded by General William 
SLIM
 crossed the Irrawaddy River in mid-January and in
 considerable force near Mandalay in mid-February,
 both crossings drawing strong Japanese
 counterattacks. Having drawn the Japanese, Slim's
 forces crossed the river farther south and then
 executed a planned encirclement, arriving behind
 the main Japanese force, taking Meiktila in early
 March and forcing the Japanese to turn to meet
 them. British troops on the Irrawaddy then took
 Mandalay and moved toward the main Japanese force.
 Caught between the two British forces, the damaged
 Japanese retreated. Rangoon was liberated in early
 May; the Japanese then retreated toward Thailand
 before the advancing British until the end of the
 war in August.

Burma Road, a 700-mile-long road built by the
 Chinese Republic during the Chinese-Japanese War,
 running from Lashio, Burma, to K'un-ming, China;
 from 1939 to 1942 it carried supplies arriving at
 the port of Rangoon and sent on by train to Lashio.
 It was cut in 1942 when advancing Japanese forces
 in Burma took Lashio but reopened in 1944, with
 some route changes, as the Stillwell Road, after
 General Joseph 
STILLWELL, then commander of
 Allied forces in the area.

Burmese Civil War (1948- ), a four-decades-long
 group of concurrent and continuing insurgencies by
 ethnic minorities and Communist groups, such as the
 Karens, Shans, Kachins, and the Burmese Communist
 party. The Burmese government often contained but
 never fully ended these insurgencies.

Burmese Spring (March-September 1988), substantial
 March-April student demonstrations against the Ne
 
WIN government that escalated into massive
 demonstrations involving hundreds of thousands of
 students and other Burmese in June and July. On
 July 23, Ne Win resigned, but major nationwide
 demonstrations continued against his successors,
 who had been identifed with his government and were
 widely thought to be still in his control. In late
 August, 
U NU initiated a united antigovernment
 organization, and on September 9 he announced the
 formation of a provisional government. But on
 September 18 the armed forces-headed by General Saw
 Maung, who had been closely associated with Ne
 Win-took control once again, banning protests and
 killing hundreds of demonstrators.

Burnham, Linden Forbes Sampson (1923-85), Guyanese
 lawyer, a founder of the People's Progressive Party
 in 1950, who broke away to form the People's
 National Congress in 1957. He became prime minister
 of 
GUYANA in 1964, first prime minister
 (1966-80), and then president (1980-85) of
 independent Guyana. He moved toward socialism after
 independence, from 1970 nationalizing many
 industries and expropriating many foreign holdings.


Burt, Cyril Lodowic (1883-1971), British
 psychologist, who played a key role in shaping the
 modern educational system in Britain. In his early
 years Burt developed many different types of tests,
 designed to identify students who needed special
 help and those who could benefit from more advanced
 education, and laid the groundwork for child
 guidance. He wrote key textbooks and served on
 several government committees, helping to frame the
 key Education Act of 1944. His published studies on
 twins, supporting his view that intelligence was
 largely inherited, were later found to be faked, a
 fact that tarnished his reputation.

Burton, Harold Hitz (1888-1964), U.S. lawyer,
 Republican mayor of Cleveland, Ohio, 1936-40 and
 U.S. senator from Ohio 1940-45, who was appointed
 to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1945 by President
 Harry S. 
TRUMAN. He took a generally conservative
 position on the Court, especially as regarded civil
 liberties matters, until his retirement in 1958.

Burundi (Republic of Burundi), until 1919 part of
 German East Africa. It was part of the British
 Ruanda-Urundi 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS mandate territory
 1919-62, becoming an independent state on July 1,
 1962.

Burundi massacres, the killing of an estimated
 100,000-250,000 Hutus by the Tutsi-dominated
 Burundi armed forces, following the failed Hutu
 rebellion of 1965. There were also massacres of an
 estimated 5,000 or more Hutus by the Tutsi armed
 forces in August 1988, again after a failed Hutu
 rebellion.

Bush, George Herbert Walker (1924- ), U.S. oil
 industry executive, congressman, 
UNITED NATIONS
 ambassador, CIA chief, vice-president, and 41st
 president of the United States from 1989. The son
 of Connecticut senator Prescott Bush, he moved to
 Texas in 1953, was a founder of Zapata Petroleum,
 and moved into Republican politics with an
 unsuccessful run for the senate in 1964. He served
 two terms as a congressman from Houston, lost
 another senate race in 1970, was UN ambassador
 1970-72, U.S. liaison head in Peking 1974-76, and
 CIA director 1976-77. He made an unsuccessful run
 for the 1980 Republican presidential nomination,
 withdrew in favor of Ronald 
REAGAN, and became
 Reagan's vice-president 1980-88. As vice-president
 he traveled widely in support of administration
 aims and headed several government task forces, but
 he had little real impact on policy or the course
 of events. In 1988 he won the long campaign for the
 Republican presidential nomination and then
 defeated Democratic nominee, Michael 
DUKAKIS.

Bush, Vannevar (1890-1974), U.S. electrical
 engineer, who developed early forms of the 
ANALOG

 COMPUTER 1925-30. A professor and an inventor in a
 wide range of areas, Bush was head of the U.S.
 Office of Scientific Research and Development, from
 1941 to 1945 overseeing the application of advanced
 technology to the military effort in World War II,
 including the development of the atomic bomb,
 radar, and 
ANTIBIOTICS such as 
SULFA DRUGS and
 
PENICILLIN.

Bustamente, Alexander (1884-1977), Jamaican labor
 leader, founder of the Bustamente Industrial Trade
 Union and the Jamaica Labor party, the first prime
 minister of independent Jamaica 1962-67.

Buthelezi, Gatsha (1928- ), South African Zulu
 tribal leader, chief minister of the Kwa-Zulu, who
 pursued a path of negotiation with the South
 African government toward formation of a
 multiracial government, in some periods directly
 opposing the 
AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS. Activists
 of the 
INKATHA MOVEMENT, which he led,
 intermittently engaged in street fighting against
 others in South Africa's black communities during
 much of the 1980s.

buzz bomb, popular nickname for the
 
ROCKET-powered V-1
 BOMB used by Germany against
 Britain from June 1944.

Byrd, Richard Evelyn (1888-1957), U.S. naval
 aviator and explorer who, with co-pilot Floyd
 
BENNETT, made the first flight over the 
NORTH

 POLE on May 9, 1926, though some, even as late as
 the 1980s, questioned whether or not he had
 actually reached the Pole. Byrd also made the first
 flight over the 
SOUTH POLE, with co-pilot Bernt
 Balchen, on November 29, 1929. During the next
 three decades, by then an admiral, he led several
 other expeditions to 
ANTARCTICA.

Byrnes, James Francis (1879-1972), U.S. lawyer, a
 South Carolina Democratic congressman (1911-25) and
 senator (1931-41), who in the 1930s became a
 strongly pro-
NEW DEAL legislator. In 1940
 Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT appointed him to the
 Supreme Court; he resigned after 1 year to become
 head of the wartime Office of War Mobilization. He
 became Harry S. 
TRUMAN'S secretary of state in
 July 1945, resigned in 1947, and later criticized
 Truman's domestic programs as too liberal. He was a
 prosegregation governor of South Carolina from 1951
 to 1955.

Cabrini, Frances Xavier (1850-1917), Italian-born
 Catholic nun, popularly called Mother Cabrini, who
 from 1889 worked with poor immigrants, most of them
 of Italian origin, in the United States and later
 throughout the world, and helped develop a
 considerable body of Catholic institutions devoted
 to that work. She was declared a saint in 1946.

Cairo Conference (November-December 1943), actually
 a set of two conferences, occurring before and
 after the
 TEHRAN CONFERENCE. The first, involving
 Franklin 
ROOSEVELT, Winston
 CHURCHILL,  and


 CHIANG KAI-SHEK (November 22-26), set forth a
 series of plans for the Pacific war. The Soviet
 Union was not represented at the conference, not
 then being at war with Japan. Then, after the
 four-power conference at Tehran (November
 28-December 1), Roosevelt and Churchill met at
 Cairo again (December 3-7), to plan the coming
 invasion of Europe. Afterward, some of the
 agreements made with Chiang Kai-shek were not
 carried out by the western Allies.

Caldicott, Helen Broinowski (1938- ), Australian
 pediatrician, who became an antinuclear activist
 after having been inspired by Nevil Shute's On the
 Beach (1957). While training in and practicing
 medicine in Australia and America, she sparked a
 1970s campaign against France's atmospheric nuclear
 testing in the South Pacific. In the United States,
 she spurred the growth of Physicians for Social
 Responsibility from 1977 and later founded Women's
 Action for Nuclear Disarmament, becoming a
 full-time political activist from 1980, opposed to
 both nuclear weapons and nuclear power.

Cali explosion (August 7, 1956), explosion in a
 convoy of dynamite-laden trucks, parked overnight
 near the center of Cali, Colombia, killing at least
 1,100 people, injuring many more, and destroying an
 estimated 2,000 buildings.

Callaghan, Leonard James (1912- ), British trade
 unionist, in Parliament as a Labour member from
 1945. He was Harold
 WILSON'S chancellor of the
 exchequer 1964-67, home secretary 1967-70, and
 foreign secretary 1974-76 and became prime minister
 after Wilson's 1976 resignation. His party lost the
 1979 elections; he was replaced as prime minister
 by Conservative Margaret
 THATCHER. He resigned as
 Labour Party leader in 1980.

Calley, William L., Jr. (1943- ), U.S. officer,
 found guilty of responsibility for the murders of
 Vietnamese civilians in the
 MY LAI MASSACRE 
 during the
 VIETNAM WAR.

Calvin, Melvin (1911- ), U.S. chemist, who
 discovered the sequence of chemical reactions
 involved in
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS. From 1937 working at
 the University of California at Berkeley, notably
 at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, he used a
 radioactive tracer to help him outline how plants
 use the green pigment 
CHLOROPHYLL and sunlight to
 transform carbon dioxide and water into vital
 nutrients, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and
 fats; the picture was completed 1945-57 and won him
 the 1961 Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

Cambodia, the former name of 
KAMPUCHEA; the
 change of name came on January 5, 1976, after
 
KHMER ROUGE victory in the 
CAMBODIAN

 (KAMPUCHEAN) CIVIL WAR.

Cambodian (Kampuchean) Civil War (1969-75), a
 guerrilla insurgency by Communist 
KHMER ROUGE
 forces, at first directed against the neutralist
 government of Prince Norodom 
SIHANOUK and from
 1970 against the pro-American government of 
LON

 NOL and throughout deeply intertwined with the
 parallel 
VIETNAM WAR. Despite U.S. military
 involvement, which included heavy bombing of
 Cambodian targets until August 1973 and a massive
 airlift to besieged Phnom Penh until March 1975,
 the Khmer Rouge won the civil war; Lon Nol fled
 into exile in early April, and Phnom Penh fell on
 April 16, 1975, ending the war. A second Civil War
 threatened to erupt after withdrawal of occupying
 Vietnamese troops in 1989.

Cambodian Holocaust (1975-78), the deaths of an
 estimated 2-3 million Cambodians at the hands of
 the 
KHMER ROUGE Cambodian government after the
 fall of the capital of Phnom Penh and the
 withdrawal of U. S. forces in April 1975. The
 
HOLOCAUST, accompanied by a mass relocation of
 urban populations to the countryside, continued
 until the North Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia
 in 1978.

Cambodian incursion (April-June 1970), a U.S.-South
 Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia; invading forces
 were withdrawn after the invasion had generated
 powerful antiwar protests in the United States.

Cambodian secret bombing (1969-73), the heavy U.S.
 bombing of North Vietnamese and 
KHMER ROUGE
 forces in Cambodia, carried on for over 5 years and
 kept secret by the 
NIXON adminstration until
 exposed by the American press, then becoming a
 source of nationwide protest, which in turn
 increased administration concern with secrecy and
 "leaks" and contributed to the development of the
 
WATERGATE scandal.

Cambrai, Battle of (November 20-December 3, 1917),
 British Third Army assault on the Hindenburg Line
 in World War I, led by 200 
TANKS; the first such
 use of massed tanks in warfare. Although the
 British broke through German defenses, advancing 5
 miles, many tanks were disabled by mechanical
 problems, and German counterattacks soon
 restabilized the front.

Cameroon (United Republic of Cameroon), until 1919
 a German protectorate, then a joint French-British
 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS interwar mandate territory and
 later a 
UNITED NATIONS mandate territory.  It
 became an independent republic on October 1, 1961.


Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), British
 antinuclear peace organization that advocates
 unilateral British withdrawal from all activities
 related to nuclear, 
CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL

 WARFARE.  It was founded in 1958; its first
 chairman was Bertrand 
RUSSELL.  The CND was
 heavily involved in meetings, marches, and
 demonstrations in the late 1950s and early 1960s,
 becoming particularly well known for its periodic
 
ALDERMASTON MARCHES.  The organization lost
 strength during the balance of the 1960s and 1970s
 but became a powerful antinuclear organization
 again, beginning in 1979, around the issue of the
 deployment of U.S. Cruise missiles in the United
 Kingdom.

Camp David Accords (September 17, 1978), agreements
 between Anwar 
SADAT and Menachim 
BEGIN,
 sponsored and also signed by President Jimmy
 
CARTER, that provided for Israeli withdrawal from
 the Sinai and for an Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty
 normalizing  relations between the two nations.
 The accords stated a number of other plans to
 achieve a general settlement in the Middle East,
 including a plan to achieve some measure of 
WEST

 BANK autonomy.  The peace treaty was signed on
 March 26, 1979, and Israel did withdraw from the
 Sinai, although none of the other stated plans bore
 fruit.

Camus, Albert (1913-60), Algerian-French writer,
 and a leading fighter-intellectual of the French
 
RESISTANCE as editor of Combat during World War
 II.  Close to Sartre and his 
EXISTENTIALIST
 circle in the immediate postwar period, he soon
 rejected Marxism and the Soviet model of socialism
 in favor of a continuing commitment to individual
 freedom and social justice, though he found it
 personally very difficult to openly favor Algerian
 independence.

Canal Zone, a 10-mile-wide strip of territory
 across the Isthmus of Panama between the Atlantic
 and Pacific oceans, within which was built the
 
PANAMA CANAL.  The Canal Zone was granted to the
 United States in the Panama-U.S. treaty of 1904,
 which was renegotiated in 1979.

Canaris, Wilhelm (1887-1945), German naval officer,
 who saw action in World War I and became head of
 the German armed forces intelligence but who
 secretly opposed 
HITLER, becoming an organizer of
 the anti-Hitler underground in the armed forces.
 He was arrested after the unsuccessful
 assassination attempt against Hitler in 1944 and
 was executed by the Gestapo in April 1945.

cancer, dread disease resulting from uncontrolled
 cellular growth, for which no cures but much
 knowledge and many therapies were developed in the
 20th century. Widespread cancer research, using
 transplanted tumors in mice and rats, was begun in
 the first years of the 20th century. By 1915
 scientists had created the first induced chemical
 cancers in animals, beginning a list of
 carcinogenic substances that has lengthened with
 the chemical explosion of the 20th century. In the
 interwar period many researchers began to connect
 cancers of the breasts and reproductive systems
 with 
ESTROGEN and other such 
STEROIDS; others
 found that various kinds of 
RADIATION also were
 carcinogenic. In the mid-1950s researchers
 established the link between lung cancer and
 tobacco smoking. In the same decade researchers
 found new evidence for the previously rejected idea
 that at least some cancers had a viral or
 immunological basis. In addition, evidence
 gradually accumulated that predisposition to cancer
 was, to some extent, hereditary and also influenced
 by diet, with excess calories and fats increasing
 cancer risk and fiber lowering it. Meanwhile, new
 treatments emerged. In addition to surgery, 
X-RAY
 radiation was used to good effect, especially after
 1930. Chemotherapy was developed rapidly from the
 1940s, with special success against Hodgkin's
 disease and leukemia and with 
HORMONES and
 steroids used especially for treating cancers of
 the reproductive system. At the same time,
 increasingly efficient diagnostic methods were
 being developed, among them the 
PAP SMEAR, the
 use of 
ULTRASOUND, and X-rays, as in mammography.


Cannon, Annie Jump (1863-1941), U.S. astronomer
 working at the Harvard Observatory, who directed
 and completed (1897-1924) a classificatory catalog
 of over 200,000 stars down to the 11th magnitude of
 brightness, discovering many new stars herself and
 providing an invaluable basis for much 20th-century
 astronomical research.

Cannon, Joseph Gurney ("Uncle Joe" Cannon,
 1836-1926), U.S. lawyer, an Illinois Republican in
 the House of Representatives (1873-91, 1893-1913,
 1915-23) and Speaker of the House (1903-11).  As
 Speaker, the intensely conservative and dictatorial
 Cannon antagonized many from both parties;
 ultimately, in 1910, a bipartisan coalition led by
 progressive Nebraska Republican George 
NORRIS
 succeeded in changing House Speaker selection
 rules, breaking Cannon's power.

Cantigny, Battle of (May 28-29, 1918), the first
 U.S. World War I battle, in which the U.S. First
 Division attacked, took, and held the village of
 Cantigny against German counterattacks.

Canton, Fall of (October 21, 1938), the taking of
 the south China port of Canton after successful
 Japanese landings nearby, concluding the Japanese
 conquest of the China coast.

Canyon Lake Dam collapse (June 9, 1972), the
 collapse of a dam that flooded Rapid City, South
 Dakota, costing an estimated 200 lives and causing
 much property damage.

Cao Dai, Vietnamese religious group, some of whose
 members were employed by the 
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE

 AGENCY (CIA) as anti-Communist mercenaries during
 the 
VIETNAM WAR.

Cape Canaveral (Cape Kennedy 1963-73), Florida
 launching site used by the 
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS

 AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA).

Cape Kennedy, Florida launching site used by the
 
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

 (NASA); known as 
CAPE CANAVERAL before 1963 and
 after 1973.

Cape Verde Islands (Republic of Cape Verde), until
 1975 a Portuguese colony; it became an independent
 nation on September 7, 1980, at that time looking
 forward to unification with 
GUINEA-BISSAU on the
 African mainland but dropping that plan in 1981.

capitalism, any economic system characterized
 primarily by private ownership, operation, and
 development of the means of production and
 distribution. In theory, capitalism implies
 unlimited economic and personal freedom; in
 practice, 20th-century capitalism has evolved as a
 set of mixed private-public forms, with government
 participation and control of significant portions
 of the economy the rule rather than the exception.
 The balancing of personal freedom and societal
 restraints has been a major process at work in all
 democratic societies, whether primarily capitalist-
 or socialist-oriented. In some instances, as in
 Germany, Italy, and Japan during the interwar
 period, capitalism and fascism were compatible; as
 with socialism, the other main economic form of the
 century, capitalism can exist in a considerable
 variety of political systems.

Capone, Alphonse (1899-1947), U.S. underworld
 leader and one of the most famous criminals of the
 1920s, who at the peak of his power had murdered
 most of his rivals and had achieved considerable
 control of both police and the underworld in
 Chicago and some surrounding areas. His best known
 set of murders was the Chicago 
ST. VALENTINE'S DAY

 MASSACRE on February 14, 1929, in which his
 assassins, some of them posing as police officers,
 killed six members of an opposing gang and one
 bystander. Capone was later convicted of tax
 evasion and retired after his prison term,
 ultimately dying of syphilis.

Caporetto, Battle of (October 24-November 12,
 1917), World War I battle in which German troops
 joined Austrian troops on the Isonzo River; both
 attacked and routed the Italian army, taking
 275,000 prisoners while suffering small losses.

carbon 14, radioactive 
ISOTOPE of carbon used in
 
RADIOCARBON DATING.

Cardenas del Rio, Lazaro (1895-1970), Mexican
 soldier and political leader, who joined the
 
MEXICAN REVOLUTION in 1913, becoming an army
 officer and in the early 1920s the youngest general
 in the Mexican army. He was elected governor of his
 home state of Michoacan in 1928, there initiating a
 series of reform programs, including redistribution
 of the land to the peasants and educational
 reforms. In 1930 he became head of the official
 party, the National Revolutionary Party, and was
 president of Mexico 1934-40. As president he
 sharply increased the pace of land redistribution
 and nationalization, initiated further educational
 reforms, and expropriated the foreign-owned oil
 companies, a move that was especially popular in
 Mexico. After his presidency he continued to be a
 major force on the left in Latin America.

Cardozo, Benjamin Nathan (1870-1938), U.S. lawyer,
 writer, scholar, and long-term member and chief
 justice of the New York Court of Appeals (1916-32);
 he was appointed to the Supreme Court by Herbert
 
HOOVER in 1932.

Carlson, Chester Floyd (1906-68), U.S. inventor who
 developed 
XEROGRAPHY, an inexpensive dry (xero in
 Greek) process of copying. Carlson first developed
 the idea in 1938 and patented it in 1940, later
 licensing it to Xerox and other corporations.

Carlsson, Bernt (1938-88), Swedish diplomat, a
 close associate of Swedish premier Olaf 
PALME,
 and secretary-general of the Socialist
 International 1970-76.  He was 
UNITED NATIONS
 commissioner for Namibia 1987-88 and played a major
 role in negotiating the regional accords involving
 Namibia, Angola, Cuba, and South Africa.  He was
 killed in the December 21, 1988, 
LOCKERBIE

 AIRPLANE BOMBING.

Carmichael, Stokely (1941- ), U.S. Black civil
 rights activist, who became chairman of the
 
STUDENT NON-VIOLENT COORDINATING COMMITTEE (SNCC)
 in 1966.  He later became a Ugandan citizen with
 his wife, singer Miriam Makeba.

Carnarvon, George Edward Stanhope Molyneux Herbert
 (1866-1923), English archaeologist, who with Howard
 
CARTER excavated widely in the Valley of the
 Kings in Luxor, Egypt, uncovering many tombs, the
 most famous being that of 
TUTANKHAMEN (King Tut)
 in 1922, which Carter later excavated.

Carnegie, Andrew (1835-1919), 19th-century U.S.
 industrialist, who built the Carnegie Steel Company
 while pursuing a parallel career as a
 philanthropist.  In 1901 he sold his company to J.
 Pierpont 
MORGAN'S U. S. Steel Company and
 thereafter devoted substantially all of his time to
 philanthrophy, developing the Carnegie Endowment
 for International Peace in 1910 and the Carnegie
 Corporation in 1911, both models for future
 philanthropic organizations.

Carol II (1893-1953), dictatorial Rumanian king
 from 1930, who was replaced by fascist Ion
 
ANTONESCU in 1940, Rumania then entering World
 War II on the side of the 
AXIS.  Carol was exiled
 to Lisbon and never regained his throne.

Carol, Edna, and Hazel (August-October 1954), three
 successive Atlantic hurricanes that killed an
 estimated 300 people in the United States and
 Canada and caused approximately $700 million in
 property damage.

Carranza, Venustiano (1859-1920), Mexican landowner
 and revolutionary, who became governor of Coahuila,
 fought with Francisco 
MADERO against Porfirio
 Diaz in 1910-11, and in 1913 became leader of the
 insurrection against the rule of dictator
 Victoriano 
HUERTA, who was deposed in July 1914.
 The long civil war then continued; Carranza
 decisively came to power after the Battle of
 
CELAYA in April 1915, in which his forces, led by
 General Alvaro 
OBREGON, defeated the army of
 Francisco (Pancho) 
VILLA. Obregon led a
 successful insurrection against Carranza in 1920;
 Carranza was killed by Obregon's forces in May
 1920.

Carrel, Alexis (1873-1944), French surgeon, working
 in America 1905-44, who did key early work
 preparing the way for modern 
OPEN-HEART SURGERY
 and 
ORGAN TRANSPLANTS, winning him the 1912 Nobel
 Prize for Physiology or Medicine.  At the turn of
 the century, with Charles Claude Guthrie, Carrel
 developed a method of suturing blood vessels and
 experimented with operations and transplants on
 animals.  In 1914 he further refined his techniques
 by doing the first successful heart operation on a
 dog.  During World War I, with Henry Dakin, he also
 introduced a widely used sterile solution for
 cleansing deep wounds.  Afterward he worked on ways
 of growing living tissue, laying the basis for much
 medical and biochemical research, including that on
 
CLONES.  In 1936 he and Charles 
LINDBERGH
 designed a pumping machine-essentially, an external
 
ARTIFICIAL HEART-to supply blood to a patient's
 organs, keeping them alive outside the body;
 further development of such machines made possible
 open-heart surgery and the use of artificial
 organs.

Carson, Rachel (1907-64), U.S. ecologist, teacher,
 and writer, whose pioneeering work on the adverse
 impacts of chemicals in the environment, especially
 as presented in her best-seller The Silent Spring
 (1962), had great influence on the development of
 worldwide ecological and 
GREEN movements.

Carter, Howard (1873-1939), English archaeologist,
 who with the Earl of 
CARNARVON excavated widely
 in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor, Egypt,
 uncovering many tombs, the most famous being that
 of 
TUTANKHAMEN (King Tut) in 1922, which he
 excavated after Carnarvon's death.

Carter, James Earl, Jr. (Jimmy Carter, 1924- ),
 U.S. farmer, naval officer (1946-53), Democratic
 Georgia state legislator (1963-67), and governor of
 Georgia (1971-77), who became 39th president of the
 United States (1977-81) after defeating incumbent
 Gerald R. 
FORD in 1976.   As president he
 initiated a good deal of new legislation but saw
 little of it become law, for his prestige and
 consequent political strength suffered greatly from
 a combination of unsolved domestic and foreign
 problems, including persistent inflation,
 recession, 
OPEC'S OIL EMBARGO, and the 
IRAN

 HOSTAGE CRISIS.  During his administration the
 
CAMP DAVID ACCORDS were worked out in 1978,
 resulting in the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty of
 1979, and full Chinese-American diplomatic
 relations were restored; but relations with the
 Soviet Union worsened, especially after the Soviet
 invasion of Afghanistan, resulting in the U.S.
 boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics and the embargo
 on American grain shipments to the U.S.S.R.  From
 November 1979 the Carter administration was
 preoccupied by the Iranian hostage crisis.  He was
 defeated by Republican Ronald 
REAGAN in the 1980
 presidential campaign.

Carver, George Washington (1864?-1943), U.S.
 agricultural chemist, who sparked the 20th-century
 change in crops in the American South. Born into
 slavery during the Civil War, Carver worked his way
 through school and college, becoming director of
 agricultural research at Alabama's Tuskegee
 Institute (1896-1943). There he experimented with
 crops that would, unlike cotton, enrich the soil,
 focusing especially on the peanut and the sweet
 potato and developing hundreds of uses for them.
 After 1914 reports of his research findings,
 farmers in the South-their cotton hard hit by boll
 weevils-began to follow his lead and revived their
 sagging fortunes.

Casablanca Conference (January 14-23, 1943), a
 meeting between Franklin 
ROOSEVELT and Winston
 
CHURCHILL at which the unconditional surrender of
 the 
AXIS powers was first stated as an Allied war
 aim.  The Atlantic antisubmarine battle, the
 strengthening of the Soviet supply line, the
 buildup to the Allied invasion of Europe, the
 bombing of Germany, and the coming invasion of
 Sicily were made top priorities, with the Pacific
 war continuing to take second place; but within
 those bounds the Americans were free to pursue the
 Pacific war as they chose.  In practice, that meant
 strong prosecution of combined air, sea, and land
 operations in the Pacific, for by then American war
 production was capable of supplying much of what
 was needed for both wars.

Casement, Roger David (1864-1916), Irish Republican
 leader and former British diplomat, who sought
 German support and arms for an Irish revolution
 against Britain during World War I. The hoped-for
 arms did not materialize; he was captured in
 Ireland after embarking from a German submarine a
 few days before the 
EASTER RISING and was
 executed in London for treason on August 3, 1916.


Casey, William Joseph (1913-87), U.S. lawyer, who
 became a tax editor in the late 1930s, served in
 the 
OFFICE OF STRATEGIC SERVICES (OSS) during
 World War II, and in the postwar period became a
 well-known tax attorney and investor. He supported
 Richard M. 
NIXON during the 1968 presidential
 campaign, was head of the 
SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE

 COMMISSION 1971-72, and alternated appointive
 government positions with law practice during the
 rest of the 1970s.  He managed the 1980
 presidential campaign of Ronald 
REAGAN and became
 
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA) director in
 1981.  In that position he undertook major covert
 operations throughout the world, encountering
 strong congressional opposition to some of those
 operations and to his freewheeling style.  He was
 deeply involved in the 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR,
 appearing four times before congressional
 committees before a developing illness hospitalized
 him in December 1986.  He never returned, resigning
 on February 2 and dying on May 6, 1987.

Cassino, a mountain monastery that in 1943-44
 became a strong German defensive position on the
 
GUSTAV LINE, the strongly held set of German
 positions running across Italy.  Allied forces
 assaulted it three times in February-March 1944; it
 finally fell to Allied Polish troops on May 18, as
 part of a general breakthrough all along the Gustav
 Line.

Castro Ruz, Fidel (1926- ), Cuban lawyer and
 revolutionary, who led the unsuccessful 
26TH JULY

 MOVEMENT insurrection against the 
BATISTA
 government on July 26, 1953, was afterward
 imprisoned for 2 years, and moved to the United
 States after being freed in an amnesty.  He
 returned to Cuba in December 1956, led the 
CUBAN

 REVOLUTION, and became Cuban ruler in January
 1959.  As relations with the United States
 worsened, notably after unsuccessful CIA-sponsored
 attempts on his life and the 
BAY OF PIGS invasion
 of 1961, Castro sought the sponsorship and military
 and economic aid of the Soviet Union. Declaring
 himself a Communist and consolidating his rule
 around the Communist Party, he welcomed the
 stationing of Soviet missiles in Cuba, which led to
 the 
CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS and the threat of
 nuclear war. He received massive Soviet aid and
 sent Cuban troops to fight beside Soviet-backed
 armies in Africa.

Castro Ruz, Raul Hector (1931- ), Cuban
 revolutionary, brother of Fidel 
CASTRO, who
 fought beside his brother from the beginning of
 their revolutionary enterprise and became
 vice-premier and armed forces head after their
 victory.

cathode-ray tube (CRT), type of 
ELECTRON TUBE,
 used to create visual images; widely employed as a
 receiver or monitor for 
TELEVISION, RADAR, and
 
COMPUTERS under various names such as visual
 display terminal (VDT).  In 1906 Karl Braun
 discovered that by using a magnetic field he could
 change the path of 
ELECTRONS in a cathode-ray
 tube. Building on Albert 
EINSTEIN's 1905 theory
 of the 
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT, Russian scientist
 Boris Rosing suggested in 1907 that cathode-ray
 tubes could be used to convert electrical signals
 into patterns of light.  Working independently,
 also in 1907, English inventor Alan Campbell
 Swinton suggested that a cathode-ray tube could act
 as both camera and receiver, and he outlined a
 method of electron-beam scanning that Vladimir
 
ZWORYKIN later employed in creating his
 television.

Catonsville Nine, a group of anti-
VIETNAM WAR
 activists, led by Catholic priests Daniel and
 Philip 
BERRIGAN, who in May 1968 set fire to
 draft cards in a Catonsville, Maryland, draft board
 office; some members of the group were later
 imprisoned for the action.  Their trial was
 subsequently dramatized as The Trial of the
 Catonsville Nine.

CAT scan (computerized axial tomography), medical
 diagnostic device that links a high-speed 
X-RAY
 machine with a 
COMPUTER so that a series of
 pictures at different planes are combined to give
 the doctor a computer-simulated three-dimensional
 view.  The first CAT scan machine was introduced in
 Britain in 1971; it was developed by South
 African-American Allan MacLeod Cormack and British
 physicist Godfrey N. Hounsfield, who shared the
 1979 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for
 their invention.  The CAT scan reflects differences
 in 
ELECTRON density in body tissues, as oppposed
 to the 
NMR IMAGER, which measures 
PROTON
 density.

Catt, Carrie Chapman (1859-1947), a leading U.S.
 women's suffrage activist of the early 20th
 century, who as president of the National American
 Woman Suffrage Association led the fight for the
 adoption of the 
19TH AMENDMENT in 1920.  In 1919
 she led in the organization of the 
LEAGUE OF WOMEN

 VOTERS and also was active in many other domestic
 reform and international disarmament causes.

Causa, La (The Cause), the slogan developed by
 Cesar 
CHAVEZ while turning the grape growers'
 strike and boycott of 1965-70 into a nationwide
 movement.

Cavell, Edith Louisa (1865-1915), British nurse,
 who was executed by the Germans on October 12,
 1915, after having confessed to being part of an
 Allied underground organization in Belgium; her
 execution became a cause celebre, and she was
 posthumously recognized as a major World War I
 British heroine.

CB warfare, shorthand name for 
CHEMICAL AND

 BIOLOGICAL WARFARE.

CCC, the initials of the 
CIVILIAN CONSERVATIONS

 CORPS, by which this U.S. 
NEW DEAL federal
 agency was best known.

Ceausescu, Nicolae (1918-1989), Rumanian Communist
 leader, active in the 1930s, who rose during the
 post-World War II period, becoming a member of the
 Rumanian politburo in 1955, succeeding Gheorghe
 
GHEORGHIU-DEJ as party secretary-general in 1965
 and becoming president in 1967.  He continued and
 extended Gheorghiu-Dej's independent policies,
 differing with the Soviet Union and other
 Soviet-bloc states on many major international
 issues and maintaining diplomatic relations with
 China, Israel, Egypt, and many Western nations.  He
 also took a far more conservative Marxist position
 on such matters as economic reform and human
 rights, encountering severe economic problems and
 increasing internal dissension. Ceausescu was
 deposed by the December 1989 
RUMANIAN REVOLUTION.
 On December 22, he and his wife, Elena Ceausescu,
 were captured, and on December 25 were executed by
 the new National Salvation Front government.

Celaya, Battle of (April 1915), a battle between
 the Mexican government forces of Venustiano
 
CARRANZA, led by general Alvaro 
OBREGON, and
 revolutionary forces led by Francisco (Pancho)
 
VILLA.  The battle was won by the government
 forces, Villa then retreating into northern Mexico.


Central African Republic, until 1960 a French
 colony, part of French Equatorial Africa, becoming
 an independent state on August 13, 1960.  The
 Central African Republic's first president, David
 Dacko, quickly created a one-party state.  He was
 deposed by the forces of Jean-Bedel 
BOKASSA on
 January 1, 1966; Bokassa then turned the country
 into a corrupt and murderous police state.  He
 abolished the republic in 1976 and created the
 Central African Empire, with himself as emperor, on
 December 4, 1976.  Bokassa was deposed by Dacko,
 with French army assistance, on September 20-21,
 1979, and the republic was formally reestablished.
 Dacko's democratic government lasted only until the
 army takeover of July 21, 1982, which was followed
 by reestablishment of a one-party state led by
 general Andre-Dieudonne Kolingba.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), U.S. federal
 espionage, foreign intelligence, and covert action
 organization that  from its authorization by the
 National Security Act of 1947 played a wide and
 varied role in furthering U.S. 
COLD WAR
 objectives.  In several major situations it greatly
 expanded its role, sometimes going far beyond legal
 bounds, and also becoming involved in espionage and
 surveillance directed at domestic dissenters.  It
 succeeded the World War II 
OFFICE OF STRATEGIC

 SERVICES (OSS), using the personnel of that agency
 as its nucleus.  Operating out of headquarters in
 Langley, Virginia, on a large, wholly secret
 budget, for more than four decades the CIA has
 functioned as the chief federal intelligence
 advisory organization while at the same time
 mounting hundreds of covert operations.  Some of
 the best known of these were participation in the
 toppling of the Iranian and Guatemalan governments
 in the early 1950s; the failed 
BAY OF PIGS Cuban
 invasion of 1961, coupled with unsuccessful
 attempts to assassinate Fidel 
CASTRO; the massive
 Southeast Asian covert operation of the 1960s and
 early 1970s, with its "secret army" and the
 operation of a war in Laos; aid to the army coup
 that toppled the 
ALLENDE government in Chile; and
 involvement in domestic espionage directed against
 dissenters during the 
VIETNAM WAR, as exposed in
 the 
PENTAGON PAPERS case and in subsequent
 Congressional investigations. CIA activities were
 closely scrutinized and considerably curbed during
 the late 1970s, though the agency regained some of
 its former status and freewheeling capability
 during the Reagan years.  CIA officials denied any
 agency participation in the 
WATERGATE and
 
IRAN-CONTRA scandals, although CIA director
 
WILLIAM J. CASEY was widely accused of deep
 implication in the Iran-Contra scandal.

Central Park Nuclear Freeze meeting (June 12,
 1982), the largest American antinuclear weapons
 demonstration, in support of a nuclear freeze;
 attendance estimates varied greatly, most being in
 the 500,000-1 million range.

Central Powers, during 
WORLD WAR I, Germany,
 Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria.

cesium clock, type of 
ATOMIC CLOCK using the
 oscillations of cesium 133 as a standard.

Chaco War (1932-35), a conflict between Bolivia and
 Paraguay over control of the Chaco region, in which
 Bolivia sought an outlet to the sea via the
 Paraguay River.  Early Paraguayan successes were
 reversed by strengthened Bolivian forces, which had
 won much of the region by June 1932; however,
 greatly augmented Paraguayan forces won the war by
 June 1935. The Treaty of Buenos Aires (July 1938)
 awarded most of the Chaco to Paraguay but did give
 Bolivia its desired outlet to the sea.

Chad (Republic of Chad), region that became a
 French protectorate in 1900, part of French
 Equatorial Africa in 1910, and on August 11, 1960
 an independent state, led by President N'Garta
 (Francois) Tombalbaye, who quickly turned the new
 nation into a one-party state and by 1966 was
 facing the beginnings of the long insurgency that
 led to civil war. Tombalbaye's assassination during
 a 1975 military coup began the 
CHAD CIVIL WAR.

Chad Civil War (1975-87) a long civil war with
 roots in the traditional conflict between northern
 Moslems and the Blacks of Chad's south, many of
 them Christians. The war was fueled by Libyan
 support of the northern forces, with consequent
 support of the southern forces by France, the
 area's former colonial occupier, and by many black
 African nations. Libyan forces intervened after
 assassination of Chad's President Tombalbaye in
 1975 during a coup attempt. French, Libyan, and
 Chadian forces engaged in a sporadic, sometimes
 major series of clashes during the next 5 years.
 Mediation and the supply of peacekeeping forces by
 neighboring African nations, especially during
 1980, promised but ultimately failed to bring
 peace. During the early 1980s 
ORGANIZATION OF

 AFRICAN UNITY peacekeeping units and French forces
 brought temporary halts to the fighting, and in
 1984  Libya and France agreed to pull their forces
 out of Chad. Peace did not come; guerrilla war
 continued, and Libyan-backed forces mounted strong
 attacks in the south early in 1986.  The southern
 forces struck back, however, successfully moving
 north; on March 22, 1987, they captured the Libyan
 air base at Ouadi Doum and then the major Libyan
 base at Faya-Largeau with its estimated $l billion
 worth of weapons and supplies.  Chadian forces then
 invaded southern Libya as well, in all severely
 damaging the power and prestige of Muammar
 al-
QADDAFI and paving the way for the negotiated
 truce that followed.

Chadli, Ben-Jedid (1929- ), Algerian officer, who
 joined the 
FLN (NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT) in
 1955, became a general staff officer of the FLN
 army in Tunis in 1961, and was Oran regional
 commander of the Algerian army 1963-68.  In 1979 he
 succeeded Houari 
BOUMEDIENNE as president of
 Algeria (1979- ) and head of the FLN, continuing
 but somewhat moderating Algeria's socialist course
 in an attempt to solve deepening economic problems.
  He continued Algeria's one-party, authoritarian
 rule but with some moderation, as evidenced by his
 release of Ahmed 
BEN BELLA from his 15-year
 imprisonment.

chain reaction (nuclear), self-sustaining process
 of 
NUCLEAR FISSION, in which-once a sufficient
 amount, or 
CRITICAL MASS, of fuel is
 available-extra 
NEUTRONS from earlier fission
 reactions induce other fission reactions; first
 suggested as a possibility by Frederic
 
JOLIOT-CURIE and others in 1939 and achieved by
 Enrico 
FERMI'S research team in 1942 as part of
 the 
MANHATTAN PROJECT.  In an 
ATOMIC BOMB this
 chain of reactions builds rapidly to an explosion,
 but in a 
NUCLEAR REACTOR it is controlled, with
 rods to absorb extra neutrons and supply a steady
 flow of energy.

Chalk River chain reaction (December 2, 1952), a
 major nuclear accident at Canada's experimental
 Chalk River reactor: a chain reaction created 1
 million gallons of radioactive water inside the
 reactor.  On May 23, 1958, a defective fuel rod in
 the same plant overheated, creating a second
 nuclear accident.

Challenger, second of the U.S. 
SPACE SHUTTLES,
 launched first on April 4, 1983, which in 1986
 exploded on takeoff, killing all seven aboard.  Its
 early flights were successful, carrying into space
 the first American woman astronaut, Sally 
RIDE,
 on its second flight on June 18, 1983, and the
 first Black astronaut, Guion 
BLUFORD, Jr., on its
 third flight on August 30, 1983.  On its fourth
 flight, begun February 3, 1984, two astronauts took
 the first untethered 
SPACE WALK.  But its fifth
 flight-launched at 
CAPE CANAVERAL, Florida, at
 11:38 
AM on a cold January 28, 1986, as millions
 of people watched on their television sets-ended in
 disaster.  About 1 minute after lift-off, a fuel
 tank fire started; and only a few seconds later, at
 73 seconds after lift-off, the spacecraft went down
 in flames, its pieces falling 60,000 feet into the
 Atlantic.  The seven people aboard died; they had
 no available exit and probably would have had no
 time to use one in any case.  They were Francis R.
 Scobee, flight commander; Michael J. Smith, pilot;
 Gregory B. Jarvis, engineer; Ronald E. McNair,
 physicist; Ellison S. Onizuka, aeronautical
 engineer; Judith A. Resnick, engineer; and S.
 Christa 
MCAULIFFE, a high school social studies
 teacher, whose role was to have been the teaching
 of science by television from space.  Previous
 tests had shown that the seals (O-rings) joining
 the rockets on the sides of the shuttle might fail,
 even in much warmer weather than that January day,
 and there had been seal problems in earlier
 flights.  The predictability of the failure was
 dramatically demonstrated for the investigating
 commission by physicist Richard 
FEYNMAN, who
 simply placed an O-ring in a glass of ice water and
 showed the resulting inelasticity.  But NASA had
 elected to take a chance with the lives of the
 astronauts and proceeded with the launching, for it
 was committed to a rush schedule.  The result was a
 disaster that claimed seven lives and set back the
 American space program for years.

Chamberlain, Neville (1869-1940), British
 Conservative MP, who became prime minister in 1937
 after a political career in which he was concerned
 mainly with internal British matters. He ignored
 the advice of his own foreign office, entirely
 underestimated 
HITLER'S intentions, and embarked
 on a policy of 
APPEASEMENT.  Thinking that he
 could reason with Hitler, he agreed to the
 dismemberment of Czechoslovakia at the 
MUNICH
 conference of 1938, that great milestone on the
 road to World War II.  He is best remembered for
 Munich and for his 
"PEACE FOR OUR TIME" quote
 afterward.  He changed his views after the Nazis
 went on to take the rest of Czechoslovakia; he
 pledged British support to Poland and took Britain
 to war in September 1939.  He remained as wartime
 prime minister although he had lost the confidence
 of his people, resigning only after the Germans had
 moved into the Low Countries in May 1940.

Chambers, Whittaker (1901-61), U.S. writer and
 editor, who claimed to have been an American
 Communist from 1925 and a Soviet spy in the United
 States from 1932 to 1938; he was a Time magazine
 editor from 1939 to 1948.  In 1948, in testimony
 before the 
HOUSE UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES COMMITTEE

 (HUAC), he accused Alger 
HISS of having been a
 spy; and in 1949 and 1950 he was chief witness
 against Hiss in two perjury trials, the second of
 which resulted in the conviction of Hiss.  Chambers
 was later an editor of the National Review.

Chamoun, Camille (1900-87), Lebanese lawyer, who
 became a member of parliament in 1934, served in
 several cabinet-level and ambassadorial posts
 during the 1930s and 1940s, and in 1952 became
 president of Lebanon after leading a coup against
 the government of Bishara al-Khouri.  A pro-Western
 moderate and leader of the Maronite Christian
 community, he appealed to the West for help when a
 Pan-Arab-Christian Left coalition revolted in 1958;
 the United States responded with marine and army
 units, totaling over 14,000 men.  Chamoun left the
 presidency as part of the peace agreement ending
 the civil war, agreeing not to run again when his
 term ended in 1958.  He later held several other
 government positions but exerted little influence
 on the later course of events in his country.

Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1910- ),
 Indian-American astronomer, who in 1931 identified
 the size, known as the Chandrasekhar limit, above
 which a star in a late stage of 
STELLAR EVOLUTION
 may explode in a nova or 
SUPERNOVA.

Chaney, James, young civil rights worker, who with
 Andrew 
GOODMAN and Michael 
SCHWERNER was
 murdered in Neshoba County, Mississippi, in June
 1964, in the 
MISSISSIPPI CIVIL RIGHTS MURDERS.

Chang Hsueh-liang (1898- ), Manchurian warlord, son
 of warlord 
CHANG TSO-LIN, who after the Japanese
 invasion of Manchuria, was driven into northwest
 China by the Japanese because he pledged loyalty to
 the Nationalists.  At Sian (now Xian), in 1936, he
 arrested 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK, who was there to
 personally lead an anti-Communist offensive, and he
 did not let Chiang go free until he had pledged a
 united front with the Communists against the
 Japanese.  Chang went back to Nanking with Chiang,
 was arrested there, and spent the next quarter
 century under house arrest on the mainland and in
 Taiwan.

Ch'angsha, Battle of (July 1930), the key battle in
 the failed attempt by Communist guerrillas to take
 several cities in central China; following this
 defeat the Communist insurgents fled into the
 mountains of western Kiangsi and there set up the
 
KIANGSI SOVIET.

Chang Tso-lin (1873-1928), Manchurian warlord,
 1913-28.  He expanded his area of control in north
 China in the mid-1920s but was defeated by
 
KUOMINTANG forces in 1927.  He was assassinated
 in 1928, reportedly by Japanese seeking a pretext
 to take Manchuria.  His son, 
CHANG HSUEH-LIANG,
 then took control of his forces.

Chao Tzu-yang, the old-style name of Chinese
 Communist Premier 
ZHAO Ziyang.

Chappaquiddick incident (July 1969), accident in
 which U.S. Senator Edward 
M. KENNEDY drove his
 car off a bridge at Chappaquiddick Island, near
 Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, and for 9 hours
 failed to report the accident, even though his
 passenger, Mary Jo Kopechne, had drowned.  There
 was no criminal liability, but the resulting
 adverse publicity destroyed Kennedy's presidential
 hopes, even though Massachusetts voters continued
 to elect him to the Senate.

Chateau-Thierry, Battle of (May 30-June 17, 1918),
 the second U.S. World War I battle, in which the
 U.S. Second and Third Divisions moved into the
 battle line at the Marne during the German 
AISNE
 offensive of 1918 and pushed German forces back
 over the Marne.

Chavez, Cesar Estrada (1927- ), U.S. farm worker,
 who in the 1950s worked to develop political action
 organizations among California's agricultural poor,
 in the early 1960s switching his attention to union
 organization.  He led the United Farm Workers
 Organizing Committee in the long strike against
 table-grape growers, 1965-70, ultimately developing
 a national boycott. He embarked on a series of
 hunger strikes and turned the action into La


 CAUSA (The Cause), around which many other trade
 unions and their sympathizers rallied.  During the
 1970s and 1980s Chavez attempted, with mixed
 success, to apply the same kinds of tactics to the
 development of other farm labor organizing efforts
 in and beyond California.

Cheka, the Soviet secret police organization from
 December 1917.  Somewhat reorganized, it became the
 GPU in 1922 and the OGPU in 1923.  As the OGPU-from
 the mid-1920s in the control of Joseph 
STALIN-it
 became the chief instrument of internal repression
 and was directly responsible for the killing and
 internal exile of millions of Soviet citizens.

Chelyabinsk railroad disaster (June 3, 1989), the
 worst railroad disaster in history, claiming an
 estimated 600-650 lives.  Two passenger trains
 going in opposite directions but side by side on
 the Soviet Trans-Siberian railway, and carrying a
 total of 1,200 passengers, were engulfed in flames
 from an exploding gas pipeline beside the railway.
 It was thought that sparks from the passing trains
 had ignited an accumulation of gases from the
 leaking pipeline.  Many of the dead were
 schoolchildren traveling to summer camps.

chemical and biological warfare (CB warfare), use
 of poisonous gases or biological agents in a
 military context; although both are centuries old,
 they were first employed on a large scale at the
 1915 battle of 
YPRES.  Toxic gases were used in
 World War I by both sides, the Germans often
 introducing new ones.  Gases such as chlorine,
 phosgene, and, by 1917, mustard produced widespread
 casualties, often affecting lungs, eyes, and skin,
 though killing a relatively small percentage of
 those affected.  Poison gases also were used by
 Italy in the 
ETHIOPIAN-ITALIAN WAR; by Japan in
 the 
CHINESE-JAPANESE WAR, leading into World War
 II; probably by both sides in the 
IRAN-IRAQ WAR;
 and possibly in the 
AFGHAN CIVIL WAR. Tear gases,
 designed to incapacitate temporarily but not to
 harm, have been widely used by police forces
 throughout the world, especially for riot control.
 Use of biological agents to infect enemies is less
 efficient and less reliable than chemical agents
 and therefore less widespread.  Both chemical and
 biological agents are used against plants and
 animals, to cut down on the food supply, or on
 forest or jungle shelter-most notably, the U.S. use
 of 
AGENT ORANGE in Vietnam.  Attempts to ban use
 of chemical and biological weapons include the 1925
 
GENEVA PROTOCOL and the 1972 
BIOLOGICAL WARFARE

 BAN TREATY.

chemical origin of life, theory that life
 originated from a non-living chemical stew
 energized by lightning and producing the building
 blocks of life: amino acids that form 
DNA.  The
 idea of such a chemical evolution of life was first
 put forward, and demonstrated in the laboratory, in
 the 1950s by Harold 
UREY and Stanley Miller.
 Though later much refined by others, the basic view
 came to be widely accepted.

chemical warfare, use of toxic chemical agents in
 
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE.

Cheney, Richard Bruce (1941- ), U.S. political
 leader, presidential assistant 1974-76, and Wyoming
 Republican congressman 1978-89, who was named and
 swiftly confirmed as secretary of defense in March
 1989, after the nomination of John 
TOWER was
 rejected by the Senate.

Chengchow offensive (June, 1938), a Japanese
 offensive drowned by the Chinese destruction of the
 
YELLOW RIVER DIKES; the offensive was halted,
 although it was resumed 2 months later.

Chennault, Claire (1890-1958), U.S. Air Force
 officer, who came out of retirement in 1937 to
 become 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK's air adviser.  In 1941 he
 organized the 
FLYING TIGERS (American Volunteer
 Group) to fly American planes lend-leased to China,
 and he was U. S. Army Air Force commander in China
 1942-45.

Ch'en Tu-hsiu (1879-1942), Chinese scholar and
 teacher, whose thinking played a substantial role
 in the development of the 
MAY FOURTH MOVEMENT and
 who was a founder of the 
COMMUNIST PARTY OF

 CHINA, becoming its first chairman in 1920.  He
 was removed from that post by orders of the
 
COMINTERN after the 
KUOMINTANG-Communist split
 of 1927 and the beginning of the 
CHINESE CIVIL

 WAR.  He then became a dissenting voice in his
 party, was expelled from the Communist Party in
 1930, and was  imprisoned by the Chinese government
 from 1932 to 1937, after which he left public life.


Chernenko, Konstantin Ustinovich (1911-85), Soviet
 Communist Party official, who became associated
 with Leonid 
BREZHNEV in the early 1950s and
 thereafter rose with him, becoming chief of party
 personnel in 1965, a member of the Central
 Committee in 1971, secretary of that committee in
 1976, and a member of the Politburo in 1977. In
 February 1984, after a brief tenure by Yuri
 
ANDROPOV, he succeeded Brezhnev as general
 secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet
 Union and leader of his country, functioning from
 then until his death in 1985 essentially as a
 caretaker acting on behalf of the conservative
 elements in the Soviet bureaucracy. He slowed the
 reforms started during the Andropov period and held
 off the new generation, led by Mikhail 
GORBACHEV,
 which took control immediately after his death.

Chernobyl meltdown (April 28-May 1, 1986) a core
 meltdown, explosion, and fire at the Soviet Union's
 Chernobyl, Pripyat, nuclear plant, near Kiev in the
 Ukraine, which emitted a massive radioactive cloud.
 It was first noted over Sweden, then throughout
 Europe, and ultimately throughout the northern
 hemisphere.  At least nine people were killed
 immediately, and widespread environmental
 contamination was reported, with probable adverse
 effects on the lives and environment of hundreds of
 thousands more alleged, but still to be
 definitively reported.

Chernyakovsky, Ivan (1906-45), Soviet general, who
 saw service throughout World War II and in 1944-45
 commanded a powerful group of Soviet armies that
 retook much of western Russia and Poland and
 ultimately moved into Germany; he was killed in
 battle in February 1945.

Chessman, Caryl (1921-60), robber and sex offender
 convicted in California in 1948 and sentenced to
 death in the gas chamber.  Between then and May 2,
 1960, the date of his execution, he generated and
 led a worldwide campaign for clemency, writing four
 books and winning several stays of execution.

Chetniks, Yugoslav guerrilla forces led by General
 Draja 
MIHAJLOVIC during World War II and
 affiliated with the Yugoslav government-in-exile
 headquartered in London.  During and after the war
 the Chetniks came into conflict with the Partisan
 forces led by Josip Broz (
TITO), who accused them
 of fighting on the German side; after 1943 they
 were supported by the Allies.  Following the war
 many Chetniks went into exile; some, including
 Mihajlovic, were executed by the Yugoslav
 government.

Chiang Ch'ing, the old-style name of Chinese leader
 
JIANG QING, the wife of 
MAO ZEDONG, who was in
 1981 convicted of being the leader of the 
GANG OF

 FOUR.

Chiang Ching-kuo (1910-88), son of 
CHIANG

 KAI-SHEK, who was a student in the Soviet Union
 when his father broke with the Communists in 1927
 and who averred that he had been held in the Soviet
 Union until the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR truce of 1937.
 Thereafter closely associated with his father's
 government, he fled to Taiwan in 1949 and
 ultimately became chairman of the 
KUOMINTANG,
 later prime minister, and then president of the
 Republic of China.

Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975), Chinese soldier, who
 became president and leader of the Republic of
 China during the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR (1927-49) and
 the 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR (1937-45).  A soldier who
 trained in China and Japan, he fought in the
 
CHINESE REVOLUTION OF 1911.  He joined the
 
KUOMINTANG in 1918, was sent to the Soviet Union
 in 1923 for training, and became head of the
 
WHAMPOA MILITARY ACADEMY in 1924.  He became
 military commander of the Kuomintang in 1926, after
 
SUN YAT-SEN'S death, led the 
NORTHERN

 EXPEDITION, and broke with his Communist allies in
 1927, beginning the civil war.  That same year he
 married Mei-ling 
SOONG.  He remained military
 commander during the years that followed, although
 he was not in complete control of the Kuomintang
 until 1937. During the Sino-Japanese war he became
 virtual dictator of Republican China and commanded
 all Allied forces in China during World War II.  He
 prosecuted and lost the remainder of the civil war,
 then fled to Taiwan, where he continued to rule.

Chiang Kai-shek, Madame, the name by which Mei-ling
 
SOONG, the wife of 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK, is best
 known.

Chicago Democratic National Convention (1968), the
 convention that nominated Hubert H. 
HUMPHREY for
 the presidency while thousands of anti-
VIETNAM

 WAR demonstrators violently clashed with the
 Chicago police outside the convention hall.
 Opposition Democrats and newscasters were assaulted
 by Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley's security
 operatives inside the hall, and leading Democrats
 verbally assailed Daley.  All of this happened in
 the full glare of national and international
 television coverage, doing irretrievable harm to
 the Democratic presidential campaign.  The long
 trial of the 
CHICAGO SEVEN followed.

Chicago Seven, the seven defendants at the
 September 1969-February 1970 Chicago trial that
 grew out of the antiwar protest demonstrations at
 the 
CHICAGO DEMOCRATIC NATIONAL CONVENTION of
 1968.  The defendants, Abbie 
HOFFMAN, Jerry
 
RUBIN, Tom 
HAYDEN, David 
DELLINGER, Rennie
 Davis, John Froines, and Lee Weiner, were all found
 not guilty of conspiracy charges, though five were
 convicted of lesser charges. Judge Julius Hoffman
 issued more than 100 contempt citations against the
 defendants and their lawyers.  In 1972 the
 convictions and most of the contempt citations were
 reversed, and Judge Hoffman was censured for his
 prejudicial behavior.

Chifley, Joseph Benedict (1885-1951), Australian
 trade unionist, a Labour member of parliament
 (1928-31; 1940-51), who became minister for postwar
 reconstruction and redevelopment (1942-45) and
 prime minister (1945-49).  As Labour prime minister
 of Australia's first post-World War II government
 he successfully initiated several major social
 welfare programs but was less successful in
 attempts to substantially nationalize the country's
 financial system.

Childe, Vere Gordon (1892-1957), Australian-British
 archeologist who, in syntheses such as The Dawn of
 European Civilzation (1925), laid down the broad
 outlines of cultural development in Europe and
 western Asia, notably in the third and second
 millennia 
B.C., which others have since filled
 out and modified, in the process helping to set his
 field in a firmer context within the social and
 natural sciences.

Chilean coup of 1973 (September 11, 1973), the
 seizure of power by the forces of General Augusto
 
PINOCHET, which encountered little armed
 opposition.  During or after the brief battle
 around the presidential palace Chilean president
 Salvador 
ALLENDE Gossens was killed; Pinochet's
 forces claimed that he had committed suicide,
 though his murder was widely reported.  The coup
 concluded 3 years of increasingly sharp contention
 between right and left forces in the country, with
 considerable assistance to the right provided by
 the 
U.S. CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA),
 including assistance in the preparation of the
 coup.  The new military government imposed martial
 law and embarked on a long reign of terror in which
 tens of thousands of its opponents were imprisoned,
 tortured, and murdered, including such cultural
 figures as folksinger Victor Jara; more precise and
 reliable estimates of the numbers of state
 terrorism victims in Chile are not yet available.


Chin, Larry Wu-tai, a spy for China for over three
 decades, most of them spent as a 
CENTRAL

 INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA) employee; he was
 arrested in 1985.  Convicted of espionage, he died
 in his prison cell, possibly a suicide, early in
 1986.

China, until 1912 ruled by the Manchu dynasty,
 followed by the 
REPUBLIC OF CHINA, led by 
SUN

 YAT-SEN, briefly by 
YUAN SHIH-K'AI, and from
 1926 by 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK, who took it into the
 long 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR in 1927.  After the
 Communist victory in 1949, the Republican
 government moved to the island of Taiwan (Formosa).
  On October 1, 1949, the republic was succeeded on
 the mainland by the 
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA,
 led by 
MAO ZEDONG, 1949-74, and from 1977 by
 
DENG XIAOPING, who introduced wide and deep
 economic and political reforms, greatly changing
 the course of modern Chinese history.  The 
CHINESE

 STUDENT DEMONSTRATIONS OF 1989, culminating in the
 
TIENANMEN SQUARE MASSACRE, once again sharply
 changed the course of modern Chinese history.

Chindits, small British forces engaged in
 long-range ground raids into Japanese-held Burma,
 beginning in February 1943; the raids were of
 limited military value but of some morale value to
 the Allies in a difficult period of World War II.


Chinese Civil War (1927-49), the 22-year struggle
 between the 
COMMUNIST PARTY OF CHINA and the
 
KUOMINTANG, interrupted in part by the long
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR (1937-45), which eventuated in
 the Communist victory of 1949 and the establishment
 of the 
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA.  Until 1927
 the Communists worked within the Kuomintang, which
 was closely advised by the Soviet Union.  In 1927
 the Kuomintang, then led by 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK and
 in the process of taking north China, decided to
 break with the Communists, in April turning on and
 massacring 5,000-6,000 Communists and their allies
 while taking Shanghai.  This 
SHANGHAI MASSACRE
 was the real beginning of the civil war and was
 soon followed by the first major clash of the war,
 at 
NANCHANG; the defeated Communists, led by 
ZHU

 DE, then fled to the Ching-kang Mountains of
 western Kiangsi, where they were joined by 
MAO

 ZEDONG and the other survivors of the 
AUTUMN

 HARVEST UPRISINGS. Kuomintang main forces
 completed their conquest of the north, defeating
 the northern warlords in April 1928 in a series of
 battles involving a total of approximately l
 million men and then taking Peking.  In 1930
 Communist forces attempted to take several central
 Chinese cities; they lost the Battle of
 
CH'ANGSHA, fled into the mountains, and during
 the next 4 years formed and developed the 
KIANGSI

 SOVIET Republic.  But in a series of campaigns,
 the last of them organized by German military
 advisers, Kuomintang troops defeated Communist
 forces, which then embarked on the 
LONG MARCH
 north to Shensi.  Chiang planned a renewed series
 of attacks in 1936 but was captured in the 
SIAN

 INCIDENT and ultimately did not pursue his
 campaign.  When the Japanese attacked China in
 1937, the Communists and the Kuomintang began a
 long, very uneasy truce, punctuated by many armed
 clashes, most notably the Kuomintang attack on
 allied Communist troops in 
ANHWEI, in 1941. In
 1943 Nationalist forces blockaded Communist-held
 north China, and in 1944-45 Japanese forces heavily
 attacked the Nationalists while sharply limiting
 their attacks on Communist forces.  In August 1945
 Communist forces moved into formerly Japanese-held
 portions of north China. Nationalist forces were
 airlifted into north China by American planes, and
 in September 53,000 American marines occupied
 strategic areas, including Peking.  By
 mid-November, full-scale civil war had resumed, and
 in early 1946 General George C. 
MARSHALL'S peace
 mission failed.  During 1946 Nationalist troops
 took much of Manchuria and north China, but in July
 1946 American supplies were stopped, and by January
 1947 all but a few American marines had been
 withdrawn. During 1947 Communist armies went on the
 offensive in Manchuria and north China.  From May
 1948 through January 1949 Communist troops won a
 series of major battles, destroying Nationalist
 armies at 
MUKDEN in Manchuria, in the Yellow
 River valley, and finally in the decisive battle of
 
SUCHOW, in which defending Nationalist armies
 lost an estimated 250,000 men, half of their
 effective forces.  Peking fell on January 22,
 Nanking on April 22, and the rest of China's major
 cities during that summer and autumn while the
 remaining Nationalist armies disintegrated.  In
 December 1949 the Nationalist government fled to
 Formosa, later renamed Taiwan, ending the long
 civil war.

Chinese Revolution of 1911, the series of uprisings
 against the Ch'ing (Manchu) dynasty that began at
 Wuchang, in central China, on October 10, 1911, and
 then spread throughout China. The Manchu government
 recalled general 
YUAN SHIH-K'AI, but he made
 peace with the revolutionaries rather than fighting
 for the Manchus.  
SUN YAT-SEN, who had been
 abroad raising money and support for the
 revolution, hurried home from the United States and
 was elected provisional president of the new
 Republic of China, but he felt that his forces were
 too weak to govern; he negotiated with 
YUAN, who
 became first president of the new republic on March
 10, after the child emperor 
HSUAN T'UNG (later
 Henry 
P'U YI) had abdicated.

Chinese-Indian border war of 1962, conflict in
 which Chinese frontier troops invaded and took
 disputed territory from India during October and
 November 1962, declaring a cease-fire on November
 21, when their objectives had been achieved.

Chinese student demonstrations of 1989, a series of
 major demonstrations in the spring of 1989, which
 began as student demonstrations in Beijing and soon
 spread to other Chinese cities and included other
 portions of the population, most notably teachers
 and journalists.  The demonstrations began as a
 tribute to reformer 
HU YAOBANG on his death and
 became massive prodemocratic demonstrations
 involving millions, centering on the long student
 occupation of Beijing's 
TIANANMEN SQUARE.  The
 demonstrations generated a national crisis and a
 struggle for dominance between the liberal and
 conservative wings of the Chinese Communist
 movement.  The conservative faction, led by 
LI

 PENG with the backing of 
DENG XIAOPING,
 ultimately gained power, ousting the liberals led
 by 
ZHAO ZIYANG.  A massacre followed in and
 around Tiananmen Square on June 4, 1989, in which
 hundreds and perhaps thousands of Chinese citizens
 were killed by the Chinese army. Mass arrests and
 country-wide repression of dissidents then ensued.


Chirac, Jacques (1932- ), French conservative
 political leader, who held several adminstrative
 posts before and after entering the national
 assembly in 1967.  He was premier 1974-76 and
 1986-88.

chiropractic, nontraditional form of treatment
 involving mechanical manipulations and adjustments
 of the body's skeletal system, on the assumption
 (outlined in 1953) that disease results from
 interference with the body's nerve impulses; from
 the Greek words cheir (hand) and praktikos. Though
 the approach and first school were developed in the
 U.S. Midwest by Canadian-American Daniel David
 Palmer in the 1890s, it was not until the early
 20th century, under the direction of Palmer's son
 Bartlett, that chiropractic became firmly rooted.
 Early chiropractors were often subject to arrest
 for practicing medicine without a license; in 1968
 HEW reported to Congress that chiropractic had no
 scientific research to support its claims and was
 ineligible for Medicare.  Even so, chiropractors
 have gradually become more widely accepted by the
 general public and by the 1980s were to be found
 throughout the United States and in many other
 countries.

Chisholm, Shirley Anita St. Hill (1924- ), U.S.
 social worker, New York Democratic state legislator
 (1964-68), and the first Black woman member of the
 House of Representatives (1969-83).  In 1972 she
 was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic
 presidential nomination.

Chissano, Joaquim Alberto (1939- ), Mozambiqe
 guerrilla general, a longtime 
FRELIMO leader who
 became president of Mozambique on November 3, 1986,
 succeeding Samora 
MACHEL.  As president he
 pursued the long civil war against 
RENAMO and
 other guerrilla groups while attempting to bring
 peace through negotiations that included South
 Africa within the context of a developing set of
 regional peace initiatives.

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), also called
 chlorofluoromethanes (CFMs) or Freons, chemicals
 used as spray propellants and refrigerants,
 implicated as early as 1974 in depletion of the
 
OZONE LAYER.

chlorophyll, green pigment in plant tissue vital to
 the process of 
PHOTOSYNTHESIS, by which plants
 create vital nutrients; first discovered in the
 19th century.  German scientist Richard Willstatter
 detailed the structure of chlorophyll (1905-13),
 for which he won the 1915 Nobel Prize for
 Chemistry, and by 1957 Melvin 
CALVIN had worked
 out its precise role in photosynthesis.

cholesterol, fatty, crystalline substance in the
 body, found in many foods but especially in eggs
 and meats.  High cholesterol has been linked with
 heart disease, particularly if caused by deposits
 in the arteries, and also with formation of
 gallstones, spurring massive anticholesterol
 campaigns, especially in the United States, from
 the 1970s on.

Chomsky, Noam (1928- ), U.S. linguistics scholar,
 who posited the view that underlying grammatical
 forms are innate. His controversial theory, first
 expressed in Syntactic Structures (1957), proposed
 that a series of "transformational" rules provided
 an underlying ""generative'' grammar, from which
 specific human languages resulted.  From the
 mid-1960s Chomsky also wrote and spoke widely on
 political issues of the left, especially against
 the 
VIETNAM WAR.

Chou En-lai, the old-style name of Chinese leader
 
ZHOU ENLAI.

Choukoutien Cave (Zhoukoudian), site near Peking
 (Beijing), China, where early human fossil remains,
 popularly called 
PEKING MAN, were found in 1927.


Christian X (1870-1947), king of Denmark (1912-47)
 and of Iceland (1920-44), who defied German
 authority and refused to cooperate with occupation
 forces after the 1940 conquest of Denmark.
 Although held by the Germans from 1943 to 1945, he
 remained a major symbol of Danish resistance
 throughout the war.

Christian General, the popular name of 
FENG

 YU-HSIANG, a leading north China warlord in the
 1920s, who was defeated by the 
KUOMINTANG in
 1930.

Chungking fire (September 2, 1949), a dock fire
 that spread into the city at Chungking, China;
 1,700 people died.

Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer (1874-1965), son
 of Lord Randolph Churchill and American Jennie
 Jerome.  He was an army officer who ultimately
 became British prime minister, after a long and
 checkered political career, and led his country
 through World War II.  He also was a writer,
 historian, and one of the most quotable speakers of
 the century.  His early career included military
 service in India and Egypt, and a period as a war
 correspondent during the 
BOER WAR.  He became a
 Conservative MP in 1901, switched to the Liberals
 in 1904, and rose quickly to the cabinet level in
 politics, becoming First Lord of the Admiralty
 (1911-15).  He was largely responsible for the
 British fiasco at 
GALLIPOLI and the Dardanelles
 in 1915, and was thereafter dropped from the
 wartime cabinet, coming back into 
LLOYD GEORGE's
 cabinet in 1919.  From 1917, he was deeply
 concerned about the threat that he felt the
 
BOLSHEVIK Revolution posed.  He went back to the
 Conservatives in the 1920s, becoming chancellor of
 the exchequer in the Baldwin cabinet (1924-29), and
 in that position he pursued policies that were
 widely blamed for the 
GENERAL STRIKE of 1926 and
 held contributory to the 
GREAT DEPRESSION that
 began in 1929.  Leaving office in 1929, he spent 10
 years as a writer and speaker, during the 1930s
 joining his concern regarding bolshevism with deep
 concern about the rise of 
HITLER and the
 intentions of Germany.  In 1939 he became Admiralty
 Lord again, and on May 10, 1940, as Western Europe
 was falling to the Nazis, he became prime minister,
 leading a wartime coalition cabinet.  He played a
 huge role in rallying his country, bringing the
 United States into the war, and leading the
 
ALLIES to victory over the 
AXIS powers, in
 conjunction with Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT.  His
 party lost the election of July 1945; he then
 turned to writing The Second World War and later
 his History of the English Speaking Peoples, and to
 speaking: his "
IRON CURTAIN" speech signaled the
 beginning of the 
COLD WAR and reflected the
 profoundly anti-Communist views he had always
 continued to hold.  He was prime minister again
 from October 26, 1951, to April 5, 1953, and an MP
 until 1964, in that year completing an
 extraordinary political career then as old as the
 century.

Chu Teh, the old-style name of Chinese leader 
ZHU

 DE.

CIA, the initials of the 
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE

 AGENCY.

Ciano, Galeazzo (1903-44), Italian fascist, a
 lawyer who married Benito 
MUSSOLINI's daughter
 Edda in 1930. Ciano led a bomber squadron in the
 
ETHIOPIAN-ITALIAN WAR, by 1936 was 
MUSSOLINI'S
 foreign minister, and became very rich during his
 years in power. He turned against his father-in-law
 in 1943, joining the rest of the Fascist Grand
 Council in stripping Mussolini of power and
 imprisoning him, but then fled to Germany to escape
 charges of financial misconduct. He participated in
 the Italian puppet government set up by the
 Germans, was captured in northern Italy, and was
 executed for treason in January 1944.

Cicippio, Joseph James, one of the American
 
LEBANON HOSTAGES, comptroller of American
 University of Beirut, who was kidnapped on
 September 12, 1986.

CIO, Initials of the 
CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL

 ORGANIZATIONS, by which the organization was best
 known.

Ciudad Juarez, Battle of (May 1911), the decisive
 action of the 
MEXICAN REVOLUTION, in which rebel
 forces operating in Chihuahua in support of
 Francisco 
MADERO defeated the the government
 forces of Porforio 
DIAZ, who soon resigned.

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a massive U.S.
 
NEW DEAL self-help unemployment-relief program
 (1933-42), in which young men lived in work camps,
 were cared for and minimally paid, and were
 employed in a wide variety of conservation
 projects.

Civil Rights Act of 1964, the most important U.S.
 civil rights legislation since the post-Civil War
 Reconstruction period, which included equal voting
 standards for all, outlawed racial exclusion from
 and segregation within public places, withheld
 federal funds from discriminating educational
 institutions, outlawed union and employer racial
 discrimination, and provided for effective
 enforcement of these and the other provisions of
 the Act.

Civil Rights Act of 1968, law that outlawed
 discriminatory practices in the purchase, sale, and
 rental of homes; these open housing provisions,
 although effective in some areas, were only partly
 effective in areas in which community pressures
 continued to exclude Blacks and other minority
 groups.

civil rights movement, an interracial, interfaith
 U.S. movement and set of related campaigns that
 began with the tremendous impetus supplied by the
 Supreme Court's school desegregation decision in
 Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 and the
 
MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT led by Martin Luther
 
KING, Jr., and Ralph 
ABERNATHY in 1955. A long,
 ultimately successful campaign to desegregate
 southern schools and colleges followed the Brown
 decision, in several instances involving the
 intervention of federal troops, as in the
 integration of the Little Rock, Arkansas, schools
 in 1957 and the forced admission of James
 
MEREDITH to the University of Mississippi in
 1962. Beginning in 1960 and 1961, sit-ins and
 
FREEDOM RIDES, supported by new civil rights laws
 and the willingness of John F. 
KENNEDY and Lyndon
 B. 
JOHNSON to enforce those laws, began to
 desegregate public facilities in the American
 South. In the same period a series of civil rights
 campaigns and demonstrations-as at 
BIRMINGHAM,
 Alabama, in 1963; the 
MARCH ON WASHINGTON, D.C.,
 in 1963, the occasion of Martin Luther King's 
I

 HAVE A DREAM speech; and 
SELMA, Alabama in
 1965-focused world attention on the problem. At the
 same time an increasingly strong group of
 organizations, including the 
SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN

 LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE (SCLC), STUDENT NON-VIOLENT

 COORDINATING COMMITTEE (SNCC), CONGRESS OF RACIAL

 EQUALITY (CORE), AND BLACK PANTHER PARTY,
 continued to campaign for civil rights. The 
CIVIL

 RIGHTS ACT of 1964, 
TWENTY-FOURTH AMENDMENT TO

 THE CONSTITUTION (1964), 
VOTING RIGHTS ACT OF
 1965, and 
CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1968 responded to
 many of the demands of the civil rights movement,
 and the election of Black officeholders throughout
 the South signaled massive changes in southern
 life, though many of the deepest questions raised
 by the civil rights movement remained unresolved.


Civil Works Administration (CWA), a U.S. federal
 
NEW DEAL agency administered by Harry 
HOPKINS,
 operating in the winter of 1933-34, that provided
 temporary work on public projects for 4 million
 unemployed workers and was a model for the later
 
WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION (WPA).

Clark, Mark Wayne (1896-1984), U.S. officer, who
 saw service in World War I, worked as Dwight D.
 
EISENHOWER'S deputy commander to prepare the 1942
 Allied North African invasion, and then commanded
 the American Fifth Army during the Italian
 campaign. He headed U.S. occupation forces in
 Austria until 1947 and commanded United Nations
 forces in Korea as that war was winding down, from
 May 1952 through July 1953.

Clark, Ramsay (1927- ), U.S. lawyer, son of Tom C.
 
CLARK, in the justice department from 1961 and
 U.S. attorney general 1967-69. Clark was a strong
 advocate of individual and civil rights and played
 a key role in enforcing civil rights laws during
 the late 1960s.

Clark, Tom Campbell (1899-1977), U.S. lawyer, in
 the justice department from 1937, U.S. attorney
 general 1945-49, and associate justice of the
 Supreme Court 1949-67. He resigned in 1967 to avoid
 any conflict of interest that might arise from the
 appointment of his son, Ramsay 
CLARK, as U.S.
 attorney general.

Clark Field attack (December 8, 1941), destruction
 of the main U.S. air strength in the Philippines on
 the ground at Clark Field, near Manila, by Japanese
 planes attacking from Formosa, despite knowledge of
 the 
PEARL HARBOR disaster only the day before.

Cleaver, Eldridge (1935- ), U.S. radicial civil
 rights activist, whose book, Soul On Ice (1968),
 written in prison, was one of the key
 Black-consciousness works of the 1960s. He was the
 presidential candidate of the Peace and Freedom
 party in 1968 and a leader of the 
BLACK PANTHER

 PARTY. After participating in a 1968 gun battle
 between some members of the Black Panthers and
 police in Oakland, California, he fled the United
 States. He returned to the United States as a "born
 again" Christian in 1975, then touring the country
 as a conservative religious spokesperson.

Clemenceau, Georges Eugene Benjamin ("The Tiger";
 1841-1929), French doctor, journalist and political
 leader, twice premier of France (1906-09 and
 1917-20), a leader of the parliamentary opposition
 during the last three decades of the 19th century
 and of the campaign to vindicate Alfred Dreyfus. As
 premier and thereafter, he was a strong supporter
 of the French military buildup prior to World War
 I. He became wartime premier in November 1917, at
 the age of 76, and then played a central role in
 the winning of the war, at the 
PARIS PEACE

 CONFERENCE of 1919, and in the shaping of the
 Treaty of 
VERSAILLES.

Cleveland natural gas explosion (October 20, 1944),
 explosion of a liquefied natural gas storage
 facility at Cleveland, Ohio. The massive resulting
 fire destroyed 50 city blocks and an estimated 300
 buiildings. At least 125 people were killed in the
 explosion and fire.

Clifford, Clark McAdams (1906- ), U.S. lawyer and
 diplomat, legal counsel to President Harry S.
 
TRUMAN, 1946-50;  a troubleshooter and key
 Southeast Asia presidential advisor for Presidents
 John F. 
KENNEDY and Lyndon B. 
JOHNSON before
 becoming secretary of state in 1968. At first a
 strong supporter of the 
VIETNAM WAR, Clifford
 played a key role in Johnson's decision to stop the
 bombing of North Vietnam and to begin the long
 American disengagement

Clippers, airplanes built by Igor 
SIKORSKY and
 put into South American, trans-Atlantic, and
 trans-Pacific service by Pan American Airways in
 the late 1930s.

clone, in biology, one or more organisms that are
 genetically identical, produced from a single
 ancestor, asexually, rather than receiving half of
 their genetic heritage from each of two parents.
 Cloning has long been used in botany and in the
 laboratory, where cloning of tissues (plant or
 animal) provides uniform matter for researchers to
 work with. But with the rise of 
GENETIC

 ENGINEERING interest began to focus on cloning
 larger organisms. Public interest was spurred in
 the 1970s by the appearance of popular books and
 articles claiming that a human had been cloned. No
 such achievement was confirmed, but in 1980 Chinese
 scientists produced a clone of a fish. The
 following year Swiss scientist Karl Illmensee
 cloned several mice, the first known cloned
 mammals; in the same year American researchers
 Allan Wilson and Russell Higuchi first cloned genes
 from an extinct species, the zebra-like quagga.

clone, in computer science, a machine built to be
 virtually identical in operation with a mainstream
 "name brand" computer; Compaq produced the first
 clone of the 
IBM PERSONAL COMPUTER in 1982.

Cloquet forest fire (October 21, 1918), a forest
 fire that destroyed Cloquet, Minnesota, and 25
 neighboring towns, killing 559 people and
 destroying over more than 2,000 square miles of
 forest.

cloud chamber, device for detecting atomic
 
PARTICLES, using supersaturated air through which
 
RADIATION and subatomic particles leave a track
 that can be observed and photographed. The cloud
 chamber was invented by Charles 
WILSON in 1911
 and (with improvements by others) was for decades a
 basic tool of nuclear physicists. A variation
 called the 
BUBBLE CHAMBER was developed in 1952
 by Donald 
GLASER.

Clubb, Oliver Edmund (1901-89), U.S. diplomat,
 writer, and teacher, in the U.S. foreign service
 1928-52. He was sent to Beijing in 1928 and during
 the next two decades became an "old China hand,"
 spending much of his diplomatic career in East Asia
 and leaving Beijing in 1950. In 1951, at the height
 of the 
MCCARTHY period, he was accused of being
 pro-Communist and was suspended from his post as
 head of the state department's China section by a
 departmental loyalty review board, a suspension
 that was lifted on appeal in 1952. But his
 diplomatic career was over; he was transferred
 internally to a dead-end job and soon resigned. In
 later years he became an author, focusing on East
 Asian matters, and taught at the Columbia
 University East Asian Institute.

Club of Rome, international group on world economic
 problems that commissioned the Massachusetts
 Institute of Technology to write the 1972 report,
 
THE LIMITS OF GROWTH, on the dangers of unchecked
 economic expansion.

CND, the initials of the 
CAMPAIGN FOR NUCLEAR

 DISARMAMENT, a leading British antinuclear
 organization.

Coalbrook mine disaster (January 21, 1960), death
 by methane poisoning of 417 coal miners trapped by
 rock falls in a mine at Coalbrook; South Africa's
 worst mine disaster.

Cocoanut Grove fire (November 28, 1942),
 conflagration in a Boston nightclub with inadequate
 exits, making it impossible for most to escape when
 flames erupted; smoke, fire, and panic killed 491
 people.

Coffin, William Sloane, Jr. (1924- ), U.S. minister
 who became Yale University chaplain in 1958, and
 was active in the 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT and the
 anti-
VIETNAM WAR campaign in the 1960s. He was
 convicted of conspiring to counsel draft evasion in
 1968; the conviction was reversed in 1969.

Cohn, Roy Marcus (1927-86), U.S. lawyer, an
 assistant government prosecutor in the 1951
 
ROSENBERG case, part of the prosecution staff in
 the unsuccessful 1952 perjury prosecution of Owen
 
LATTIMORE, and chief counsel of the Senate
 investigations committee of Joseph R. 
MCCARTHY,
 1953-54. Cohn's activities in the last position
 helped bring the epithet 
MCCARTHYISM into the
 language. He was discredited, with McCarthy, after
 the 1954 
ARMY-MCCARTHY HEARINGS, and went into
 private practice. Cohn became a powerful, extremely
 controversial New York lawyer, who survived many
 tax audits and three federal prosecutions on a
 variety of charges, ultimately being disbarred on
 June 23, 1986, shortly before his death on August
 2, 1986.

Cohn-Bendit, Daniel "Danny the Red" (1945- ),
 1960's French-German left-wing political activist,
 a leader of the March 1968 student demonstrations
 at the University of Paris. During the 1980s he was
 active in the German 
GREEN MOVEMENT.

Cointelpro, U.S. 
FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION

 (FBI) domestic counterintelligence program,
 initiated by J. Edgar 
HOOVER in 1956 and
 continuing into the early 1970s, in which the FBI
 engaged in massive illegal operations as a matter
 of policy, including harassment of political
 dissidents, illegal wiretapping, burglary,
 kidnapping, the provocation of illegal acts by
 dissidents, and the attempted disruption of
 dissident groups through the spread of
 disinformation. Some of these FBI activities were
 exposed in the 1976 report of the Senate Select
 Committee on Intelligence, in the atmosphere
 engendered by the 
WATERGATE SCANDAL.

cold fusion, 
NUCLEAR FUSION achieved at room
 temperatures, as claimed (but not confirmed) by
 researchers in 1989.

cold war (1945- ), more than four decades of sharp,
 continuing conflict, short of shooting war, between
 the United States and the Soviet Union, the world's
 two nuclear superpowers, each  possessed of the
 power to destroy the other many times over and much
 of the world in the process. The cold war generated
 a massive, continuing arms race between the two
 powers, and a continuing covert war between their
 vastly expanded espionage organizations, and
 greatly enhanced many civil and regional wars among
 factions and states influenced by the superpowers.
 It also brought the world to the brink of nuclear
 holocaust on several occasions, most notably during
 the 
CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS of 1962. During the
 early 1970s and again in the late 1980s both
 nations evinced a desire to reduce tensions,
 negotiating nuclear arms limitation and regional
 conflict agreements. In the 
GORBACHEV era the war
 came to an end, though not without great concern on
 both sides and throughout the world as to its
 possible revival.

Collazo, Oscar, and Griselio Torresola, Puerto
 Rican nationalists who on November 1, 1950, tried
 to shoot their way into Blair House in Washington,
 DC, and assassinate President Harry S. 
TRUMAN.
 Terresola and a guard were killed; Collazo was
 wounded and sentenced to life imprisonment; his
 sentence was commuted in 1979.

Collingwood school fire (March 8, 1908), a fire at
 the Collingwood Elementary School, in Cleveland,
 Ohio, killing 173 children and 2 teachers; the
 flames had blocked the main exit, and the rear
 windows and doors were locked.

Collins, Michael (1890-1922), Irish Republican
 leader who was head of 
IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY
 intelligence during the 
IRISH WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE, a main Irish representative during
 the negotiations that in 1921 ended the war and
 partitioned Ireland, and commander of the Irish
 Free State forces during the 
IRISH CIVIL WAR. He
 was ambushed and killed near the end of the civil
 war, on August 22, 1922.

Colombian Civil War (1947-58), a rural guerrilla
 war between liberals and conservatives, with
 government forces on the side of the conservatives,
 in which an estimated 200,000-300,000 people died;
 generally called La 
VIOLENCIA. After it ended,
 low-level insurgency continued, and during the
 1980s grew into a substantial, multifaceted
 guerrilla insurgency complicated by some guerrilla
 links with the 
MEDELLN CARTEL and other
 drug-related organizations.

Colombo Plan, a major development aid plan for Asia
 and the Pacific conceived at a meeting of
 
COMMONWEALTH foreign ministers at Colombo, Sri
 Lanka, in 1950 and later joined by Japan and the
 United States as aid providers and by many other
 nations as aid recipients. The aid totals more than
 $5 billion per year in grants, loans, goods,
 technical help, training, drug abuse advice, and a
 miscellany of other assistance. Japan is by far the
 largest contributor; their aid is more than the
 total contributions of all other countries.

Colossus, all-
ELECTRONIC, special-purpose
 
DIGITAL COMPUTER built in 1943 by Alan 
TURING
 to break the German codes, notably those from the
 
ENIGMA machine.

Columbia, first of the U.S. 
SPACE SHUTTLES,
 launched initially on April 12, 1981 and first
 reused in November 1981; in 1982, on its fifth
 flight, it launched the first 
SATELLITE from a
 shuttle.

Columbia University sit-ins, the student
 demonstrations of April 1968, in which protestors
 occupied five Columbia University campus buildings
 for 6 days, until finally evicted by New York City
 police at the request of the college
 administration. Hundreds of arrests were made, and
 the campus was closed for the balance of the
 semester.

COMECON, the initials of the 
COUNCIL FOR MUTUAL

 ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE, a multinational Soviet-bloc
 mutual economic assistance group.

Cominform (Communist Information Bureau),
 international organization formed in 1947 by the
 Communist parties of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia,
 Italy, France, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
 Rumania, and Bulgaria, which from 1947 until the
 death of Joseph 
STALIN in 1953 was a major
 instrument of Soviet domination of the Communist
 parties of Europe, except for Yugoslavia; in 1948
 
TITO refused to conform, taking Yugoslavia on an
 independent path. Yugoslavia was then expelled from
 the Cominform. After Stalin's death the Cominform
 was little used, and was dissolved in 1956.

Comintern, an alternate name for the 
COMMUNIST

 INTERNATIONAL, founded by 
LENIN in 1919.

Common Market, an informal name for the 
EUROPEAN

 ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EEC).

Commonwealth, The, a 46-nation association that
 evolved as the British Empire dissolved. Although
 its existence was never formally declared, the
 British Commonwealth of Nations, which later came
 to be called the Commonwealth, was tacitly
 recognized by Britain's Statute of Westminster
 (1931), which established equality among those
 autonomous former British colonies still affirming
 their loyalty to Britain and its royal house. After
 World War II, Britain's former colonies joined the
 Commonwealth in substantial numbers, as new,
 developing countries.

communism, as a 19th-century theoretical term, a
 construct advocating absolute economic and
 political equality, advocated by Karl Marx and
 Friedrich Engels as well as by anarchist Peter
 Kropotkin. In the 20th century, communism, as put
 forward by V. I. 
LENIN, had the egalitarian "from
 each according to his ability, to each according to
 his needs" goal, the road to that goal consisting
 of the development of a Communist Party led by a
 revolutionary elite, which would seize power and
 then rule in authoritarian fashion for the good of
 those ruled and with the aim of developing a
 Communist state. To that end, Lenin and his
 associates developed the 
BOLSHEVIK party, seized
 power in the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION, and held it
 during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR. In the wake of the
 Russian Revolution, existing socialist movements
 split all over the world, with competing democratic
 socialist and Soviet-oriented authoritarian
 Communist parties emerging, as in Germany, the
 United States, and France; in other countries, such
 as China, the new parties has no such existing
 base. That split greatly helped the rise of fascism
 in Germany and the development of World War II. The
 worldwide Communist party network continued to be
 Soviet-oriented, successfully suppressing and
 removing dissidents, until the first major
 breakaway, that of the 
COMMUNIST PARTY OF CHINA
 during and after the 
LONG MARCH of 1934-35. The
 second major breakaway was that of Yugoslavia, in
 1948, which was in essence a refusal to become part
 of a set of Eastern European Soviet-dominated
 nations. After 
STALIN'S death in 1953 and
 
KHRUSHCHEV'S SECRET SPEECH of 1956, many of the
 world's Communist parties outside Eastern Europe
 began to pursue independent paths. In Western
 Europe that movement was 
EUROCOMMUNISM; In
 Eastern Europe, however, attempts to pursue
 separate national paths were repressed until the
 
GORBACHEV era. In the mid-1980s communism, led by
 Mikhail Gorbachev, began to reexamine and redefine
 itself, moving away from repressive
 authoritarianism and centralized, wholly controlled
 economies, a movement very much in process and flux
 in the late 1980s, and bringing massive changes in
 the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. In February
 1990, the Central Committee of the Communist Party
 of the Soviet Union renounced its guaranteed
 leading role, and with it the heart of Leninist
 doctrine.

Communist International (Comintern, or Third
 International; 1919-43), the international
 organization of the world's Communist parties,
 initiated by 
LENIN in 1919 as an alternative to
 the socialist 
SECOND INTERNATIONAL. The
 organization functioned essentially as an
 instrument of Soviet Communist Party policy during
 its life span, supporting Soviet attacks on western
 Socialist parties in the 1920s and early 1930s,
 moving over to a 
UNITED FRONT policy against
 fascism in the mid-1930s, to a neutralist position
 vis-a-vis fascism during the period of the
 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT, and finally to full support of
 the 
ALLIES in World War II, after the German
 invasion of the Soviet Union.

Communist Party of China (CCP), organization
 founded by 
CH'EN TU-HSIU and 
LI TA-CHAO, Peking
 University librarians, in May 1920. Its First
 Congress was in Shanghai in July 1921 and was a
 meeting of 11-13 people, among them 
MAO ZEDONG
 and Soviet advisor 
MARING. Ch'en was elected
 party chairman. In its early years, with its Soviet
 advisers, the CCP supported the 
KUOMINTANG. The
 two parties split after the 
SHANGHAI MASSACRE of
 1927, which initiated the 22-year 
CHINESE CIVIL

 WAR, with a period of partial truce and united
 front during the 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR (1937-45). The
 CCP, led by 
MAO ZEDONG, achieved power in 1949,
 thereafter remaining the ruling power in the
 
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA.

Communist Party of the Soviet Union, since 1952,
 the name of the ruling party in the Soviet Union,
 originally (in 1912) called the Russian
 Social-Democratic Workers Party (
BOLSHEVIKS)

Communist Party of the United States, political
 organization formed in 1919 as two dissident
 American Communist parties split from the Socialist
 Party; the two splinters united into a single
 Communist Party in 1920, which was led by William
 Z. 
FOSTER 1921-30 and 1945-57, and by Earl
 
BROWDER, 1930-45. A weak organization wielding
 very little influence during the 1920s and early
 1930s, the Communist Party achieved some strength
 and as many as 100,000 members during the 
UNITED

 FRONT period of the late 1930s, many of its
 members becoming effective mass-production
 industries labor organizers, some of its
 intellectual adherents and activists becoming
 influential in the anti-fascist movements of the
 time, and some of its members going abroad as
 "premature anti-fascists" to fight on the
 Republican side in the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR. But
 with the 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT of 1939 the American
 Communist Party suddenly "flip-flopped," becoming
 isolationist and then losing many of its most
 devoted members. Then it flip-flopped again,
 supporting U.S. intervention once Germany had
 invaded the Soviet Union. In 1943, on a Soviet
 initiative, the organization disbanded and formed
 the Communist Political Association. It
 flip-flopped again at war's end, re-forming and
 mirroring Soviet political positions as the 
COLD

 WAR began. The organization was severely damaged
 and then effectively outlawed during the early
 post-World War II period as the anti-Communist
 hysteria of the time mounted and its leaders
 continued to insist on adherence to every detail of
 Soviet policy. The coup de grace, however, was
 administered by the Soviets, when Nikita
 
KHRUSHCHEV'S 1956 secret speech to a Soviet
 Communist party congress revealed many of the
 crimes of the 
STALIN era. Believing themselves to
 have been betrayed, most of the remaining American
 Communists left their party, which afterward
 survived only as one small, left-wing splinter
 group among many.

Comoro Islands (Federal Islamic Republic of the
 Comoros), part of the group of French island
 colonies in the Indian Ocean, until independence
 was achieved on July 6, 1975. France retained
 control of the nearby island of Mayette, triggering
 a continuing dispute with the new Comoros
 government. Considerable turbulence followed
 independence; in 1978, with French mercenary
 assistance, the one-party government led by Ahmed
 Abdallah Abderemane emerged.

compact disc (CD), thin metal disc on which sounds,
 encoded as digits, appear as millions of tiny
 indentations, to be read by the 
LASER beam in a
 CD player and then translated by an amplifier back
 into sounds; a striking result of miniaturization
 in 
COMPUTERS. Introduced by Philips and Sony in
 1982, CDs quickly took over much of the market from
 
TAPE RECORDINGS and long-playing records. In the
 United States alone, 700,000 CD players were sold
 in the first 3 years, plus 15 million compact
 discs. By 1990 record publishers were redoing major
 portions of their libraries onto CDs, and some
 ceased publishing records altogether. Related
 technology had produced the videodisc in the late
 1970s, which failed initially as a consumer product
 but retained potential in business and education
 for storage of massive amounts of information.

Compton, Arthur Holly (1892-62), U.S. physicist who
 developed the idea of the 
PHOTON. In 1923 he
 found that some 
X-RAYS reflected from matter
 increased their wavelength, (later called the
 Compton effect). His explanation of the effect
 involved the idea of light as a particle, or
 photon, a key contribution to 
QUANTUM THEORY,
 inspiring Louis 
DE BROGLIE'S work on
 
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY and winning Compton the
 1927 Nobel Prize for Physics. Later he focused on
 study of 
COSMIC RAYS, during World War II heading
 the effort to synthesize 
PLUTONIUM for the
 
MANHATTAN PROJECT'S ATOMIC BOMBS.

computer, powerful electronic calculating device,
 the two types being 
DIGITAL COMPUTERS, operating
 with discrete values such as numbers and using the
 
BINARY SYSTEM for calculation, with electronic
 on-off switches; and the less common 
ANALOG

 COMPUTERS, operating with continuous values, such
 as with changing temperatures. Before the late
 1930s computers were mechanical, the most
 sophisticated being the 
MARK I and Vannevar
 
BUSH's analog machines. The first all-electronic
 computer was the 
ATANASOFF-BERRY COMPUTER (ABC),
 built 1937-42, followed by Alan 
TURING's
 
COLOSSUS, developed in Britain in 1943 for
 breaking German codes. The 
ENIAC, long regarded
 as the first all-electronic, general-purpose
 digital computer, also developed originally for
 military purposes, was built 1942-46. The 
ENIAC
 needed to be rewired for each new task, but John
 von 
NEUMANN made the revolutionary suggestion
 that programs might be stored in the computer, with
 instructions coded as numbers. In 1951, the first
 computer became available for commercial use: the
 
UNIVAC I, built by the 
ENIAC creators, which
 also introduced storage of data on 
MAGNETIC TAPE.
 By 1956 
COMPUTER LANGUAGES were being developed
 to ease the task of programming-instructing the
 machine. Early computers, sometimes called
 "electronic brains," were massive, extremely
 expensive affairs made of heat-producing 
VACUUM

 TUBES and electrical wires, or circuits, mounted
 on boards. By the late 1950s 
TRANSISTORS were
 replacing the cumbersome vacuum tubes, leading to a
 smaller "second generation" of computers and
 beginning the drive toward miniaturization. By the
 1960s ever-smaller multiple tran-  sistors were
 being built into smaller computer boards, and wires
 were being replaced by integrated circuits soldered
 onto the boards. The resulting third generation of
 computers was made more flexible by the 1970
 introduction of removable "floppy disks" for
 information storage. The following year saw the
 arrival of the 
MICROPROCESSOR CHIP: a computer's
 entire central processing unit, once a massive
 affair, was placed on a single chip of silicon,
 which replaced the computer board. Such innovations
 led to the 
PERSONAL COMPUTER (PC), designed and
 priced for small-scale home and business use,
 introduced in 1975. After that, small but
 increasingly capacious computers-some with hundreds
 of thousands of circuits on a single chip and far
 more powerful than the early 
ENIAC-proliferated
 in homes and businesses. Special-purpose computers
 were inserted into a wide range of other machines,
 such as cars and telephones; and tiny, hand-size
 computers also were available for personal use,
 starting with Hewlett-Packard's 1974 programmable
 pocket calculator. The same period saw the arrival
 of prepackaged application programs that the
 computer user could simply plug into the computer.
 By the 1980s computers had spread so quickly into
 schools and homes that many parents and
 grandparents were seen as "computer illiterate,"
 whereas preschoolers took computers as a fact of
 life. The PCs grew so quickly in power and speed
 that by the late 1980s they were capturing much of
 the middle-range business and scientific market;
 instead of a number of terminals connected to a
 massive mainframe computer, the more usual pattern
 became a series of smaller computers connected to
 each other in a network. But miniaturization also
 allowed the building of supercomputers, enormously
 powerful machines able to perform hundreds of
 millions of operations per second, often used for
 heavy scientific, industrial, and military
 applications. As John von Neumann's early 
MANIAC
 had aided the development of the 
HYDROGEN BOMB by
 swiftly doing calculations that would have taken
 scientists years to do manually, so computers were
 basic to areas such as space exploration, 
RADIO

 ASTRONOMY, and 
ROBOTICS. These computers, using
 very large scale integrated (VSLI) circuits, were
 the fourth generation of computers. From 1982
 Japanese computer scientists were working on a
 so-called fifth generation, incorporating aspects
 of 
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, including the ability
 to communicate with people in everyday language and
 to translate one language to another.

computerized axial tomography, formal name of the
 device used in a 
CAT SCAN.

computer language, special sets of coded
 instructions, in words rather than numbers, used in
 programming 
COMPUTERS. From 1947 computers had
 stored programs containing instructions in "machine
 language," that is, using numerical codes written
 in the 
BINARY SYSTEM. But in 1956 an IBM team led
 by John Backus developed a computer programming
 language, 
FORTRAN (
FORmula 
TRANslator), which
 made the process of instructing the computer much
 easier. In 1959 COBOL, a programming language
 designed for business use, was introduced by Grace
 Murray Hopper. In the mid-1960's computers became
 more widespread, John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz
 created a popularly oriented language, 
BASIC
 (
Beginners 
All-purpose 
Symbolic 
Instruction
 
Code). But from 1979 prepackaged "plug-in"
 programs designed to do specific kinds of
 activities were on sale, especially for 
PERSONAL

 COMPUTERS, freeing the general user of the
 necessity of personally programming the computer.


comsat, a condensed name for 
COMmunications
 
SATellite; as in Comsat, the U.S. organization
 participating in 
INTELSAT.

concentration camps (death camps), detention and
 sometimes murder camps holding large numbers of
 people. Detention camps are by no means a
 20th-century invention, and in the 20th century
 many nations have operated large-scale camps,
 sometimes as temporary holding sites and very often
 as mass prisons. But "concentration camp" and the
 synonymous "death camp" acquired a very special
 meaning during the Nazi era, describing the mass
 prisons run by the Germans in which an estimated
 10-15 million died, at least 6 million of them the
 Jews of the genocidal 
JEWISH HOLOCAUST. Some
 estimates of Nazi concentration camp deaths run as
 high as 26 million. Millions of those who died were
 directly murdered, mostly in the crematoria run by
 the Germans in many of the camps. Some of the most
 notorious German camps were those at 
BELSEN,

 BUCHENWALD, and 
DACHAU in Germany and at
 
AUSCHWITZ, MAIDENEK, and 
TREBLINKA in Poland.
 Other 20th-century concentration camps that have
 been places of mass murder, include the Turkish
 camps in the Syrian desert used to genocidally
 murder an estimated 1-1.5 million victims of the
 
ARMENIAN HOLOCAUST.

Concorde, world's first regularly scheduled
 
SUPERSONIC airliner, a joint Anglo-French venture
 that went into service in 1976.

Condon Report, 1969 review of sightings of
 
UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECTS, prepared by Edward
 U. Condon.

Condor Legion, a German air force group supporting
 the Nationalists in the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR.
 Germany sent an estimated 100 airplanes, including
 bombers, in a rehearsal for World War II.

Congo (People's Republic of the Congo), until 1958
 the French Middle Congo colony, becoming autonomous
 as the Republic of the Congo in 1958 and a fully
 independent state on August 15, 1960. In 1963 the
 country became a one-party state and in 1969 added
 "People's" to its name.

Congo (Zaire) Civil War (1960-67), conflict that
 began with Congolese independence on June 30, 1960,
 with immediate army rebellions and secessionist
 movements. The most important of them was secession
 of the province of Katanga on July 11, led by Moise
 
TSHOMBE and supported by Belgian troops and
 industrial interests. President Joseph 
KASAVUBU
 asked for and received a 
UNITED NATIONS
 peacekeeping force, which stayed until 1964,
 ultimately numbering 20,000. Prime Minister Patrice
 
LUMUMBA sought Soviet help in 1960, was dismissed
 by Kasavubu, and fled from a coup led by army
 commander Joseph 
MOBUTU. Lumumba set up a rival
 government in Stanleyville but was captured and
 then, in 1961, murdered while in prison in Katanga.
 The UN force fought Tshombe in Katanga; on
 September 17, 1960, UN Secretary-General Dag
 
HAMMARSKJOLD died in a plane crash over the Congo
 while en route to negotiate a ceasefire with
 Tshombe. UN forces took Katanga in 1963, Tshombe
 fleeing abroad, and withdrew from the Congo in
 1964, although other insurgencies continued.
 Kasavubu brought back Tshombe as his prime minister
 in 1964, used Belgian troops and mercenaries
 against insurgents, and dismissed Tshombe in 1965
 for alleged electoral fraud. He was himself
 dismissed on November 25, 1965, with Mobutu openly
 taking power and creating a one-party state. In
 1967 his government survived a mercenary revolt and
 an attempted exile force invasion from Rwanda.

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), a U.S.
 labor organization that began in 1935 as a group of
 
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR (AFL) unions seeking
 to organize American industrial workers into
 industry-wide unions that included both the skilled
 and unskilled, a radical departure from the craft
 union philosophy of the AFL. The Committee for
 Industrial Organizations, led by John L. 
LEWIS,
 was formed in 1935; with the help of favorable 
NEW

 DEAL labor legislation, it successfully organized
 unions in several mass-production industries, most
 notably the automobile and steel industries. Its
 organizing efforts gained great impetus from the
 successful automobile industry 
SIT-DOWN STRIKES
 of 1936 led by Walter 
REUTHER, while Philip
 
MURRAY led the steelworkers, and Sidney 
HILLMAN
 of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers organized the
 CIO's very active Political Action Committee. Led
 successively by Lewis, Murray, and Reuther, the CIO
 soon rivaled the AFL in membership and power.
 During the post-World War II period, however, the
 CIO split over 
COLD WAR political matters,
 expelling 11 of its affiliated unions during
 1949-50 as Communist-dominated while in the same
 period losing much of its ability to organize the
 unorganized, in a more conservative political
 climate. Walter 
REUTHER led the CIO into a merged
 AFL-CIO in 1955, though he and his United
 Automobile Workers (UAW) left the merged federation
 in 1968.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), U.S. civil
 rights organization founded in Chicago in 1942 by
 James Farmer, it used such tactics of nonviolent
 confrontation as desegregating biracial sit-ins and
 
FREEDOM RIDES to great effect during the 1960s.
 Floyd McKissick became CORE chairman in 1966, the
 organization thereafter becoming much less
 nonviolent, often joining the 
STUDENT NON-VIOLENT

 COORDINATING COMMITTEE (SNCC) and the 
BLACK

 PANTHERS in violent confrontations.

Congress party (Indian National Congress), Indian
 majority party, the socialist party of Mahatma
 
GANDHI, Jawaharlal 
NEHRU, Indira 
GANDHI, and
 Rajiv 
GANDHI. Formed in 1885 as a movement to win
 greater Indian representation in the British-Indian
 political process, the party strongly protested the
 partition of Bengal in 1905 and demanded home rule
 in 1906 and full self-determination for India in
 1918. It became the main vehicle of the Indian
 independence movement in the 1920s, identifying
 with the 
SATYAGRAHA civil disobedience movement
 of Mahatma 
GANDHI and in 1929, under the
 leadership of Jawaharlal 
NEHRU, beginning to call
 for full Indian independence. Its entire leadership
 was imprisoned during World War II after pressing
 in 1942 for immediate British withdrawal from
 India. During the postwar period the party emerged
 to lead India to independence, with Nehru as
 India's first prime minister. During the leadership
 of Indira Gandhi there were major party splits in
 1969 and 1978, with the party ultimately coalescing
 around her once again, as the Indian National
 Congress--Indira, later led by her son, Prime
 Minister Rajiv Gandhi.

Connally, John Bowden (1917- ), U.S. lawyer, who
 became secretary of the navy in 1961 and was Texas
 governor 1962-68; on November 22, 1963, he was
 seriously wounded during the assassination of
 President John F. Kennedy. He was secretary of the
 treasury 1971-72 and an unsuccessful Republican
 presidential candidate in 1980.

Connolly, James (1868-1916), Irish Republican
 leader, a socialist, leader of the 1913 Dublin
 general strike, an organizer of the 
IRISH CITIZEN

 ARMY, and as its leader one of the organizers of
 the 
EASTER RISING. He was executed in Dublin on
 May 12, 1916.

Connor, Eugene "Bull," Birmingham, Alabama, police
 commissioner during the 1963 civil rights campaign
 led by Martin Luther 
KING, Jr. in that city.
 Connor became a symbol of southern racism; the
 newsphoto of one of his police dogs attacking a
 child aroused worldwide revulsion and condemnation.


Conservative Party, in Britain, for most of the
 19th century, the Tory party of Peel and Disraeli.
 In the early 20th century it was until 1922 the
 Conservative and Unionist Party, for its alliance
 with 19th-century Liberals who had split with their
 party on the issue of Irish Home Rule. After 1922,
 it became the sometimes reformist-minded
 Conservative party of 
BALDWIN, CHAMBERLAIN,

 CHURCHILL, EDEN, MACMILLAN, HEATH, and Margaret
 
THATCHER, who has been viewed by many other
 leaders of her party as far more conservative than
 any of the other post-World War II leaders of the
 party.

conspicuous consumption, phrase coined by U.S.
 economist Thorstein 
VEBLEN, in his book, The
 Theory of the Leisure Class (1899), both phrase and
 book sharply criticizing what he saw as the
 conscienceless overconsumption and overdisplay of
 the American rich of his time. The phrase was seen
 as apt and went into the language.

containment, the U.S. post-World War II attempt to
 hold the Communist countries to their existing
 borders, a key strategy in the 
COLD WAR. It was
 first put into practice in the 
TRUMAN DOCTRINE of
 1947, which  was quickly followed by the 
MARSHALL

 PLAN, in 1948.

continental drift, geological theory that the
 continents move around the Earth, having some 200
 million years ago been one huge continent now
 called Pangaea. Though jigsaw-like correspondences
 between the old and new worlds had long been
 remarked, Alfred 
WEGENER first formally proposed
 the continental drift theory in 1912. It was
 treated with skepticism and downright ridicule
 until the 1950s, when new geological evidence and
 later the theoretical mechanism of 
PLATE

 TECTONICS began to support it.

contraceptive pill, alternate name for birth
 control pill.

Contras U.S.-supported Nicaraguan guerrilla armies
 fighting on against the 
SANDINISTA government
 after the defeat of the 
SOMOZA government during
 the 
NICARAGUAN CIVIL WAR. As U.S. support was
 withdrawn, the Contra position became untenable,
 and the cease-fire of March 1988 effectively ended
 the war. Supply of the Contras was a key motor
 behind the events in the 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR.
 Low-level Contra military operations continued
 during 1989 and early 1990.

Cooley, Denton Arthur (1920- ), U.S. cardiologist
 who did key work in early 
OPEN- HEART SURGERY, in
 1955 developing a widely used heart-lung bypass
 machine. An assistant to Alfred 
BLALOCK at the
 first 
BLUE BABY operation in 1944, he performed
 many operations to cure congenital heart defects in
 infants. He also implanted the first artificial
 heart in a patient, in 1969, replacing it with a
 human heart after 5 days, but the patient, Haskell
 Karp, died a day later.

Coolidge, Calvin (1872-1933), U.S. lawyer, a
 Republican Massachusetts state senator (1912-15),
 lieutenant governor (1916-19), and governor
 (1919-21), who as governor broke the 
BOSTON POLICE

 STRIKE, thereby achieving national prominence. He
 became vice-president in 1921 and succeeded to the
 presidency on the death of Warren G. 
HARDING on
 August 2, 1923, as  the 30th president of the
 United States. He defeated Democrat John W. 
DAVIS
 and Progressive Robert M. 
LAFOLLETTE for the
 presidency in 1924, then served a full term. His
 presidential years were clouded by the 
TEAPOT

 DOME and other scandals, and by the continuing
 investigations and prosecutions they generated,
 although he was not personally involved. As
 president, he exerted little impact on the course
 of his times, allowing the economic overheating
 that characterized the boom of the late 1920s to
 proceed unchecked, continuing immigration
 restriction, and limiting his domestic efforts to
 relatively minor administrative and regulatory
 matters. His attempts to foster international peace
 and disarmament helped bring about the
 
KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT of 1928 and the 
DAWES PLAN
 regarding German war reparations, both of which
 seemed major accomplishments at the time but were
 soon overtaken by events abroad.

Coral Sea, Battle of the (May 7-8, 1942), the first
 U.S.-Japanese aircraft carrier battle of the
 Pacific in World War II, in which the failure of
 the seemingly successful Japanese attack at 
PEARL

 HARBOR began to appear. In terms of losses the
 battle was inconclusive; of two American carriers
 the Lexington was sunk and the Yorktown damaged,
 and of two Japanese carriers, the Shoho was sunk.
 Thereafter, both fleets broke off the action. But
 the Japanese could not then go forward, aborting
 their planned landings at Port Moresby.

CORE, the initials of the 
CONGRESS OF RACIAL

 EQUALITY, a leading 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT
 organization of the 1960s.

Cori, Carl Ferdinand (1896-1984) and Gerty Theresa
 Radnitz Cori (1896-1957), Czech-American
 husband-and-wife medical biochemists, who worked
 out the series of chemical reactions by which the
 body metabolizes carbohydrates. The Cori cycle, by
 which glycogen is converted ultimately into lactic
 acid and energy, was the work for which they shared
 the 1947 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
 with Bernardo A. Houssay.

Corona, Juan, U.S. mass murderer, a Mexican labor
 contractor in Yuba County, California, who was
 convicted of murdering 25 Mexican migrant workers
 1970-71. In 1973 he was sentenced to 25 consecutive
 life terms of imprisonment.

coronary bypass, operation performed using
 open-heart surgery in which an unclogged blood
 vessel "harvested" from the leg is placed in a
 patient's heart to reroute blood from a clogged
 artery. Based on earlier work in surgical opening
 of blocked heart arteries, notably by Michael 
DE

 BAKEY in 1964, the coronary bypass was first
 performed by U.S. surgeon Rene Favalaro in 1967.
 Coronary bypasses were widely performed for
 decades, although partly supplanted from 1977 by
 
BALLOON ANGIOPLASTY.

Coronel, Battle of (November 1, 1914), the World
 War I sinking of two British cruisers by a German
 squadron off Coronel on the west coast of Chile.

Corregidor, siege of (April-May 1942), early World
 War II successful assault by Japanese forces on the
 island fortress off Bataan peninsula in the
 Philippines. After a siege that lasted almost a
 month, Corregidor's defenses were almost destroyed
 by heavy bombardment, and its defenders had almost
 run out of food, water, and munitions.

cortisone, type of vital 
HORMONE produced by the
 adrenal glands just above the kidneys. After much
 work on animals by many scientists, Frank A.
 Hartman first posited correctly that Addison's
 disease was caused by lack of cortisone (1927). In
 1935 American biochemist Edward Calvin Kendall
 isolated cortisone, and the following year
 Polish-Swiss chemist Tadeusz Reichstein worked out
 its structure. But cortisone did not have a major
 impact on society until 1948, when U.S. physician
 Philip Showalter Hench first used it successfully
 to treat rheumatoid arthritis, for which he shared
 the 1950 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
 with Kendall and Reichstein. Since it became
 commercially available in 1949, cortisone has been
 used to treat a wide range of ailments; as a
 
STEROID it has been subject to abuse in some
 quarters.

Cosa Nostra (Our Thing), an alternative name for
 the U.S. 
MAFIA.

cosmic rays, 
RADIATION from outer space, first
 detected during balloon flights in 1911 by Victor
 Hess and named by Robert A. 
MILLIKAN. Before
 these discoveries scientists believed all radiation
 came from earth.

Cote D'Ivore (Ivory Coast), a French colony until
 autonomy was granted in 1958. On August 7, 1960,
 the country became an independent state, led by
 President Felix 
HOUPHOET-BOIGNY, national leader
 from 1944. He presided over a one-party state
 thereafter.

Coughlin, Charles Edward (1891-1979), Detroit
 Catholic priest who became a national figure as a
 pro-fascist, anti-Semitic broadcaster in the 1930s.
 His publication Social Justice was ultimately
 denied mailing privileges by application of the
 Espionage Act, and the Catholic Church silenced him
 in 1942 with World War II in progress.

Council For Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON),
 an international mutual economic assistance
 organization established in 1949 by the Soviet
 Union and its Eastern European allies, which since
 then has expanded to include Cuba and Vietnam, with
 some participation by several other countries,
 including Yugoslavia, Mexico, Finland, Iraq, and
 several third world countries such as Nicaragua and
 Laos.

Council of Europe, an international body
 established by 11 Western European nations in 1949;
 by 1989, a 21-nation organization composed of a
 Parliamentary Assembly and several specialized
 bodies. It is particularly active in the area of
 human rights: the European Court of Human Rights
 and the European Commission of Human Rights were
 established in 1953 under the terms of the European
 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and
 Fundamental Freedoms.

counterculture, the radical, "antiestablishment"
 youth culture of the 1960s and early 1970s, which
 focused on alternative life-styles, new musical
 modes, and sometimes on 
HALLUCINOGENIC and other
 mood-altering drugs and stressed the value of a
 simple, very personally oriented life. Its most
 radical exponents, the 
HIPPIES, sought the
 simplest possible lives, away from modern
 industrial society, often retreating into rural
 communes and such urban enclaves as San Francisco's
 Haight-Ashbury district and New York City's East
 Village.

Courant, Richard (1888-1972), German-American
 mathematician who, from 1934 to 1958, raised to
 world-class caliber New York University's Courant
 Institute of Mathematical Sciences, so named on his
 retirement. A student of David 
HILBERT, Courant
 was a key figure in applied mathematics,
 influencing two generations of mathematicians-in
 Germany before the rise of the Nazis and then in
 America.

Cousteau, Jacques-Yves (1910- ), French sea
 explorer and environmentalist, who became
 internationally famous for his pioneering
 underwater photographs, television pictures, and
 films. While working with the French Navy, 1930-57,
 Cousteau and Emil Gagnan developed (1943) the
 
AQUALUNG used by underwater divers, also called
 
SCUBA GEAR (for 
Self-
Contained 
Underwater
 
Breathing 
Apparatus). In 1948 Cousteau helped
 test Auguste
 PICCARD's
 BATHYSCAPE, later
 developing a jet-propelled version of it and making
 other innovations that led to long-term underwater
 stays and enhanced knowledge of the underwater
 world. Associated with Monaco's Museum of
 Oceanography from 1957, Cousteau led many
 expeditions, which spawned not only films but also
 books, including The Silent World (1953) and The
 Living Sea (1963), both written with others.

Covenant of the League of Nations, the document
 establishing the 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS; it was signed
 at the 
PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE OF 1919 and
 ultimately by 63 nations, though never by the
 United States.

Coventry, British Midlands city that was very
 heavily bombed 1940-41, as part of the German
 terrorist bombing campaign. The city thereafter
 became a symbol of British resistance to the Nazis;
 it was completely rebuilt after the war. Long after
 the war it was learned that the British had been
 forewarned of heavy attacks on Coventry (German
 codename 
MOONLIGHT SONATA) planned for November
 14-15, 1940, but dared not display any
 foreknowledge because that might risk disclosing
 the existence of crucial 
ULTRA information gained
 from the breaking of the 
ENIGMA code.

Cox, Archibald (1912- ), U.S. lawyer, Harvard Law
 School professor 1946-61 and 1965-76, and U.S.
 solicitor-general 1961-65, who was the 
WATERGATE
 special prosecutor in 1973. In that position he
 played a major role in the exposure and resignation
 of president Richard M. 
NIXON and in the
 successful prosecution of many of Nixon's
 associates. He was fired in the 
SATURDAY NIGHT

 MASSACRE.

Cox, James Middleton (1870-1957), U.S. journalist,
 Democratic Ohio congressman (1909-13), and twice
 governor (1913-15, 1917-21), a liberal who became
 his party's unsuccessful nominee for the presidency
 in 1920; his vice-presidential candidate was
 Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT. He campaigned as a
 supporter of Woodrow 
WILSON'S programs and
 ideals, including U.S. membership in the 
LEAGUE OF

 NATIONS, and was defeated by Warren G. 
HARDING
 in a landslide. He then finished his term as Ohio
 governor and left public life.

Crash, the, popular name for the precipitous U.S.
 stock market decline of late October 1929 that
 triggered the 
GREAT DEPRESSION of the 1930s, the
 worst day being 
BLACK TUESDAY, October 29.

Crash of 1987, the U.S. stock market crash of
 October 19, 1987, 
BLACK MONDAY, in which the Dow
 Jones industrial average declined 508.32 points in
 a single day, or 22.6%, on a volume of 604.33
 million shares; both decline and volume were
 single-day records. In August the Dow had reached
 2722; by the end of the trading day, October 19, it
 had declined to 1738, a total loss of 983 points.
 Stocks in other world markets followed suit, but no
 further large decline or substantial recession
 followed. Instead, the stock markets soon
 rebounded.

Crater, Joseph Force (1889-1937), New York supreme
 court justice who disappeared on August 6, 1930,
 and was subsequently the subject of a grand jury
 investigation and an enormous amount of media
 speculation for many years. He was never seen
 again.

creationism, belief that humans were specially
 created by God, rather than evolving, as Darwin
 suggested; an old idea strongly revived among
 fundamentalist Christians in the 20th century. The
 1925 
SCOPES TRIAL was an early attempt to ban the
 teaching of evolution in schools. From the 1920s,
 creationists pressured local schools, with some
 success, to stop teaching evolution. Periodically,
 notably from the 1960s, creationists have tried to
 gather scientific support for their view, advancing
 an alternative view they call creation science and
 lobbying to have that view taught as equal with
 evolution in science classes. By the 1980s they
 were succeeding in many parts of the United States
 and in some other places as well.

credit cards, plastic cards with preprinted
 magnetic strips offered by banks and businesses,
 often associated with credit lines, and used in
 place of cash or checks to pay for goods and
 services; a basic ingredient in the envisioned
 checkless society. Available since the 1950s but
 with major growth in the late 1960s, bank credit
 cards also allow individuals to do 
ELECTRONIC

 BANKING. Because counterfeit and stolen cards
 became a problem, some firms replaced magnetic
 strips with more personalized data, such as a
 digitized fingerprint or a photograph, especially
 one produced by a 
HOLOGRAPH process.

Crerar, Henry Duncan Graham (1888-1965), Canadian
 general who in 1945 commanded Canadian and other
 Allied forces pushing into southern Germany.

Crete, invasion of (May 20-31, 1941), World War II
 taking of the Mediterranean island by a heavy
 German airborne assault, the first major assault of
 its kind in the history of warfare. German
 parachute troops encountered strong British and
 Greek resistance, but with complete control of the
 air they were able to win the battle. Some of the
 defenders were ultimately evacuated by sea.

Crick, Francis Harry Compton (1916- ), British
 molecular biologist and co-discoverer (with James
 D. 
WATSON) of the 
DOUBLE HELIX form taken by
 the 
DNA molecule, the substance that carries and
 duplicates basic hereditary information. He shared
 the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
 with Watson and Maurice 
WILKINS.

Cripps, Stafford (1889-1952), British lawyer, who
 in 1930 became solicitor general in Ramsey
 
MACDONALD's cabinet, later breaking with
 MacDonald. He became an MP in 1931 and was a
 leading anti-fascist and radical socialist
 throughout the 1930s. He was expelled from the
 Labour Party in 1939 for advocating a popular front
 with the Communists, and readmitted in 1945. Cripps
 was Churchill's ambassador to the Soviet Union in
 1940; he was in Churchill's cabinet from 1942 and
 was a leading member of 
ATTLEE'S cabinet and of
 the Labour party during the post-World War II
 period, resigning as chancellor of the exchequer in
 1950 due to illness.

critical mass, sufficient amount of fuel, such as
 
URANIUM 235 (U-235), to support a self-sustaining
 
CHAIN REACTION in 
NUCLEAR FISSION, first
 achieved in 1942 by Enrico 
FERMI.

Croatia, at the turn of the century, part of
 Hungary, within Austria-Hungary. The region became
 part of Yugoslavia after World War I; Croatian
 nationalists undertook worldwide terrorist
 operations during the interwar period. During World
 War II a fascist puppet government ruled Croatia;
 afterward the region became part of the Yugoslavia
 again, and worldwide Croatian terrorist operations
 resumed.

Croce, Benedetto (1866-1952), Italian historian and
 humanist philosopher, one of the most respected
 intellectuals in Italian life from the 1890s until
 his death. Although at first somewhat equivocal
 regarding the rise of Italian fascism, he soon came
 to oppose it fully, but because of his standing he
 was not imprisoned. He participated in the
 negotiations leading to the resignation of the king
 and the establishment of democracy in post-World
 War II Italy and was a member of the Italian
 government in 1944.

Croix de feu (Cross of Fire), a French monarchist,
 fascist veterans' organization of the interwar
 period that, with smaller French fascist
 organizations, engaged in demonstrations and street
 fighting, some of it anti-Jewish, especially in the
 early 1930s. After such organizations were outlawed
 in 1936, its influence and membership declined; it
 did not reappear after World War II.

Cronkite, Walter Leland, Jr. (1916- ), U.S.
 journalist and broadcaster; as a political reporter
 for CBS 1950-62 and chief anchor 1962-81, he
 covered and interpreted most of the main stories of
 three decades, becoming in the process the best
 known 
TELEVISION newscaster of his time and a
 powerful free press advocate and much sought-after
 source of media coverage.

Crossbow, Operation, a series of World War II
 Allied bombing raids on missile launching sites in
 Western Europe during late 1943 and early 1944.

Cross of Gold, speech by William Jennings 
BRYAN
 to the Chicago Democratic Convention of 1896 that
 helped secure his nomination. It became a populist
 rallying slogan in that campaign and during the
 early years of the 20th century. The phrase was
 taken from "You shall not crucify mankind on a
 cross of gold."

CRT, popular shorthand for 
CATHODE-RAY TUBE, a
 type of 
ELECTRON TUBE used as the viewing monitor
 used in 
TELEVISION, COMPUTERS, and 
RADAR.

Crystal Night (Kristallnacht, November 9-10, 1938),
 night named after the broken glass that littered
 the streets of cities, towns, and villages
 throughout Germany, when the windows of
 Jewish-owned businesses, homes, and synagogues were
 smashed in a massive Nazi pogrom that left many
 dead, an estimated 30,000 Jews imprisoned, and
 thousands of structures destroyed.

Ctesiphon, Battle of (November 22-26, 1915), World
 War I battle in which British forces in Mesopotamia
 moved up the Tigris River in the spring of 1915
 toward Kut, Ctesiphon, and Baghdad. They took Kut
 in late September, then advanced and met superior
 Turkish forces at strongly defended Ctesiphon. The
 Turks won the battle, the British suffering 4,600
 casualties out of a total force of 11,000 and then
 retreating to Kut.

Cuba (Republic of Cuba), after the Spanish-American
 War and the American occupation formally an
 independent nation from 1902 but a de facto U.S.
 protectorate until 1934. On January 1, 1959, after
 the victory of the 
CUBAN REVOLUTION led by Fidel
 
CASTRO, Cuba became a one-party socialist state,
 declaring itself a Communist state in 1961.

Cuban Missile Crisis (October 22-November 2, 1962),
 a major threat of nuclear war between the United
 States and the Soviet Union arising from a Soviet
 military buildup in Cuba that included missile
 sites and the arrival of Soviet bombers able to
 carry nuclear weapons. On October 22, U.S.
 president John F. 
KENNEDY, in a nationally
 televised address, announced a blockade of Cuba,
 demanded the removal of such offensive weapons from
 the island, and declared that any nuclear attack
 originating in Cuba, on any Western Hemisphere
 nation, would be considered a Soviet attack on the
 United States that would set off nuclear war. The
 United States then prepared to invade Cuba. On
 October 23 the Soviet government alerted its armed
 forces. Premier Nikita 
KHRUSHCHEV and President
 Kennedy then negotiated Soviet withdrawal, which
 was unconditional; Kennedy announced the end of the
 crisis on December 2, with Soviet dismantling of
 the missile launching sites and withdrawal of
 bombers in progress.

Cuban occupations, occupation of Cuba by U.S.
 troops, from the end of the Spanish-American War in
 1898 until May 1902, leaving under the terms of the
 Cuban-Amercan Treaty of 1903, which made Cuba an
 American protectorate. The U.S. base at Guantanamo
 was acquired at this time. From 1906 to 1909, U.S.
 troops occupied Cuba once again, to prevent an
 impending revolution and to maintain Cuba's status
 as a protectorate. In 1917, U.S. troops landed
 again, this time staying briefly to quell an
 insurrection in progress.

Cuban Revolution (1956-59), a guerrilla insurgency
 led by Fidel 
CASTRO against the government of
 dictator Fulgencio 
BATISTA, which began with the
 return by sea of a small group led by Castro on
 December 2, 1956. After an initial defeat, the
 remnants of the group fled to the Sierra Maestra,
 grew in the course of conducting a 2-year guerrilla
 insurgency, and came down out of the mountains as a
 small guerrilla army in October 1958. Castro's
 forces then took Cuba, against very light
 resistance, entering Havana on January 8, 1959,
 then taking power and ultimately turning Cuba into
 a Communist state.

cult of personality, phrase coined by Soviet
 premier Nikita 
KHRUSHCHEV to describe the public
 glorification of Joseph 
STALIN, in his speech to
 the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the
 Soviet Union, in February 1956

Cultural Revolution (Great Proletarian Cultural
 Revolution), the 1966 campaign and massive set of
 purges initiated by 
MAO ZEDONG, in which he
 attempted to decisively change China into an
 entirely egalitarian society, to that end
 developing the 
RED GUARDS, and initiating their
 disastrous attack on Chinese society and culture.


Cunningham, Andrew Browne (1883-1963), British
 admiral who saw service in World War I, and was
 Mediterranean fleet commander at the outbreak of
 World War II. His naval air arm sank three Italian
 battleships at 
TARANTO and scored other victories
 over the numerically superior Italian fleet early
 in the war, fought a losing battle against superior
 German airpower thereafter, and from the 1943
 Allied invasion of North Africa controlled the
 Mediterranean. He later became First Sea Lord.

Cuomo, Mario (1932- ), U.S. lawyer, New York State
 secretary of state 1975-79, lieutenant-governor
 1979-82, and governor from 1982. A leader of the
 liberal wing of the Democratic party, Cuomo seemed
 by far the strongest contender for the presidential
 nomination of his party in 1988 but refused to run.


Curie, Irene, original name of Irene
 
JOLIOT-CURIE, daughter of Marie and Pierre
 
CURIE.

Curie, Marie Sklodowska (1867-1934), Polish-French
 chemist who was the only person to receive two
 Nobel prizes in science. Much of her early work on
 
RADIOACTIVITY was done in the 19th century with
 her husband Pierre Curie (1859-1906); they and
 Antoine Henri Becquerel shared the Nobel Prize for
 Physics in 1903, the year she completed her
 doctoral dissertation. After Pierre's accidental
 death in 1906 she took his professorship at the
 Sorbonne, the first woman to teach there, and 5
 years later was awarded the 1911 Nobel Prize for
 Chemistry for discovering two new elements, radium
 and polonium. She continued to explore
 radioactivity, especially its applications to
 medicine, until she died of leukemia (as later did
 her daughter, Irene 
JOLIOT-CURIE), presumably
 caused by her long-term exposure to radioactivity.


Curtin, John Joseph (1885-1945), Australian Labour
 journalist, who became a Labour member of
 parliament (1928-31, 1934-45), party leader
 (1934-45), and wartime prime minister (1941-45). He
 led his country through World War II while laying
 the groundwork for the social welfare and socialist
 programs fostered by his party in the postwar
 period.

Curtis, Charles (1860-1936) U.S. lawyer, Kansas
 Republican congressman (1892-1906), senator
 (1907-13, 1915-29), and Herbert 
HOOVER'S
 vice-president (1929-33).

Curtiss, Glenn Hammond (1878-1930),
 aviator-mechanic, who in 1911 developed the first
 practical seaplane and invented the aileron, a key
 device for 
AIRPLANE stability. Before turning to
 aeronautics Curtiss put engines on bicycles and set
 a land speed record on the resulting motorcycle. He
 became a celebrity in 1908 when he won a Scientific
 American prize for making the first public flight
 of more than a kilometer in his self-designed
 airplane, the June Bug, and in 1910 he won a
 $10,000 prize for a daring flight from Albany to
 New York City. He opened the first flying school in
 1909, and his factories made hundreds of military
 airplanes for use in World War I. His NC-4 "flying
 boat," built for the Navy, made the first
 trans-Atlantic crossing in 1919. For a time in
 bitter litigation with the Wright brothers, the two
 sides later joined to form a single company.

Curzon, George Nathaniel (1859-1925), British
 aristocrat, who became greatly interested in east
 and south Asia in the late 1890s, writing three
 books on his travels. He then moved into diplomacy,
 becoming undersecretary of state for India in 1891
 and viceroy of India 1898-1905, until a dispute
 with his commander-in-chief in India, Lord
 
KITCHENER, forced his resignation. As viceroy he
 played a major role in developing further British
 penetration into China, Tibet, and Central Asia,
 also making it possible for archeologist Aurel
 
STEIN and others to rediscover earlier
 civilizations and to take away massive numbers of
 artworks. He was part of the 
ASQUITH and 
LLOYD

 GEORGE cabinets during World War I and foreign
 secretary to Lloyd George 1919-23, in that position
 influencing the postwar settlements in Europe and
 the Middle East.

Curzon Line, the provisional Polish eastern
 frontier declared by the Allies in 1919; the border
 was not accepted by Poland, which fought for and
 won much more territory to the east during the
 
SOVIET-POLISH WAR of 1920.

Cushing, Harvey Williams (1869-1939), U. S.
 neurosurgeon who pioneered in the study of the
 pituitary gland. In a key 1912 work on the
 pituitary he identified a previously unknown
 disorder, now called Cushing's disease. A professor
 and surgeon long associated with Harvard, he did
 extensive work on brain tumors and developed new
 techniques for brain and spinal cord surgery.

cybernetics, comparative study of communications
 systems in living organisms and machines, aimed at
 better understanding and control of both,
 especially through the use of 
FEEDBACK. The term
 was coined by Norbert 
WEINER in 1948 from the
 Greek for "the science of steering ships."

cyclotron, first of the circular, rather than
 linear, 
ACCELERATORS; invented by U.S. physicist
 Ernest O. 
LAWRENCE in 1930, it used
 electromagnetic fields to speed up atomic
 
PARTICLES.

Cyprus, long a part of the Ottoman Empire, then a
 British colony during World War I, remaining so
 until formation of the independent 
REPUBLIC OF

 CYPRUS on March 13, 1960, led by Archbishop
 
MAKARIOS III. Greek-Turkish communal conflicts
 led to informal but firm partition of the island in
 1967. The 1974 Turkish invasion of the island in
 support of Cypriot Turks led to establishment of
 the 
TURKISH REPUBLIC OF NORTHERN CYPRUS.

Cyprus, Turkish invasion of (1974), seizure of much
 of northern Cyprus by Turkish armed forces,
 effectively partitioning Cyprus between its
 majority Greek and minority Turkish populations;
 the partition continued.

Cyprus Civil War (1963-64), the escalation of
 long-standing low-level guerrilla conflict between
 the Greek majority and the Turkish minority on
 Cyprus into full-scale civil war in late December
 1963. In late March 1965, the 
UNITED NATIONS
 responded with a peacekeeping force, but Turkish
 air attacks in early August nearly brought about
 war between Greece and Turkey, which was averted by
 a 
UN-arranged cease-fire.

Cyrankiewicz, Josef (1911-89), Polish socialist and
 underground newspaper editor early in World War II,
 imprisoned by the Nazis 1941-45. He became
 secretary-general of the Communist Socialist Party
 in 1945 and was prime minister 1947-52 and 1954-70,
 though at no time exercising substantial power in
 Poland.

Czech coup of 1948 (February 1948), Communist
 takeover of the democratic Czech government; it was
 directed by Klement 
GOTTWALD and took the form of
 a government reorganization. President Eduard
 
BENES resigned; Foreign Minister Jan 
MASARYK
 stayed on for a few weeks and then died in a fall
 from a window of the foreign ministry.

Czech Legion, military force operating in eastern
 Russia and Siberia during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR,
 composed of 40,000-70,000 former Czech and Slovak
 prisoners of war who were being repatriated through
 Vladivostock in the spring of 1918 but were blocked
 by 
BOLSHEVIK forces. They formed themselves into
 an army, took substantial portions of the
 Trans-Siberian Railroad, and supported White forces
 against the Bolsheviks.

Czechoslovakia (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic),
 until independence in 1918 part of the
 Austro-Hungarian Empire, then a republic led by
 Tomas 
MASARYK. The country fell to Nazi Germany
 in 1938 after the 
MUNICH AGREEMENT. In 1945 the
 republic was reestablished but lasted only 3 years.
 In 1948 a one-party Soviet-bloc Communist state was
 established, which was challenged sharply only in
 1968, when Alexander 
DUBCEK led a reform
 government, triggering a Soviet invasion. In late
 1989, the massive changes of the 
GORBACHEV era
 swept through Eastern Europe, and Czech democracy
 reemerged, as a bloodless revolution swept away the
 Communist government. On November 17, student
 protesters were attacked by riot police in Prague;
 by November 23 Alexander 
DUBCEK was addressing
 mass meetings of hundreds of thousands of
 pro-democracy protesters in Prague. On December 28,
 Dubcek became chairman of the newly democratic
 Czech parliament. On December 29, dissident
 playwright Vaclav 
HAVEL became the first
 non-Communist president of Czechoslavakia since
 1948.

Czechoslovakia, Soviet invasion of (August 1968),
 occupation of Czechoslovakia by an estimated
 400,000 Soviet and Soviet-allied troops, beginning
 on August 20, 1968. The action ended the 
PRAGUE

 SPRING, an attempt by Alexander 
DUBCEK and his
 associates to liberalize Czech society.

Czolgosz, Leon (1873-1901), assassin of U.S.
 president William 
MCKINLEY at the Buffalo
 Pan-American Exposition on September 6, 1901. An
 anarchist who stated that he had killed McKinley
 for political reasons, Czolgosz was executed on
 October 29, 1901.

Dahomey, the former name of 
BENIN (People's
 Republic of Benin), which was a French colony until
 August 1, 1960.

Daladier, Edouard (1884-1970), French teacher and
 socialist, in parliament from 1919, who served in
 many French cabinets during the 1920s and 1930s and
 was French premier January-October 1933 and
 January-February 1934. He was premier once again
 from 1938 to 1940, and in September 1938 signed the
 
MUNICH AGREEMENT, which allowed the destruction
 of Czechoslovakia by the Germans and was a major
 step toward World War II. He was imprisoned by the
 
VICHY government and the Germans during World War
 II, then from 1946 to 1958 was back in parliament.


Dalai Lama, Fourteenth (1935- ), Tibetan religious
 and political ruler from 1940 until he fled to
 India in 1959, following a Tibetan insurrection
 against Chinese rule; from that time he was head of
 the Tibetan exile community in northern India. He
 was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989.

Dalkon Shield, type of 
INTRAUTERINE DEVICE (IUD)
 for contraception, implanted in an estimated 5
 million women 1971-74, that greatly enhanced the
 possibility of pelvic infection, with resultant
 miscarriages, birth defects, chronic illness,
 infertility, and sometimes death. The A. H. Robins
 Company, which had manufactured and distributed the
 Dalkon Shield, became the target of many thousands
 of lawsuits filed by women who had been damaged.
 Ultimately, a major trust fund was set up to settle
 these monetary claims, with Robins and its insurer
 contributing to the fund, though money could in no
 way compensate for much of the damage that had been
 done to the women, children, and families involved.


Dalmatia, at the turn of the century, part of
 Austria-Hungary. After Austrian defeat in World War
 I, Dalmatia was divided between Italy and
 Yugoslavia, was occupied by German forces during
 World War II, and became part of Yugoslavia again
 after the war.

Dan, Takuma (1858-1932), key Japanese 
ZAIBATSU
 leader, head of Mitsui, whose murder by Japanese
 nationalist assassins in 1932 was a milestone on
 the road to Japanese militarism and World War II.


Danbury Hatters' case (Loewe v. Lawlor, 1908), a
 landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision that outlawed
 a national boycott organized against a Danbury,
 Connecticut, hat manufacturer by the United Hatters
 of North America, as a conspiracy in restraint of
 trade.

Daniel, Yuli (1925-89), Soviet dissident of the
 early 1960s, a writer and poet whose work satirized
 and criticized the repressive aspects of Soviet
 society. Despite worldwide protests he and his
 colleague, Andrei Sinyavsky, were imprisoned
 1966-70 for their dissidence. Their trial signaled
 the end of the Soviet "thaw" of the period.

Danilof, Nicholas, a US News & World Report
 correspondent who had been arrested in Moscow and
 who, in an arrangement by the United States and the
 Soviet Union in 1986, was exchanged for Gennadi F.
 
ZAKHAROV, a 
UNITED NATIONS employee, who had
 been arrested and charged as a spy in New York.

D'Annunzio, Gabriele (1863-1938), Italian writer,
 nationalist, and then fascist, who saw service in
 World War I and led the small private army that
 took disputed Fiume in 1919. In 1921 the Italian
 army ejected his forces from Fiume. Thereafter, he
 became a fascist, strongly and publicly supporting
 
MUSSOLINI until his death.

Danny the Red, the popular name of 1960s left
 student leader Daniel 
COHN-BENDIT.

Danzig (Gdansk), the Polish city on the Baltic that
 had long been occupied by Germany prior to World
 War I and became a free city during the interwar
 period that followed. It was a source of continuing
 German-Polish tension; a March 1939 attempt to
 annex Danzig and the 
POLISH CORRIDOR was blocked
 by Great Britain. With the September 1939 invasion
 of Poland, continuing British guarantees of Polish
 independence brought the onset of World War II.

D'Aquino, Iva Ikuko Toguri, the real name of World
 War II Japanese propagandist 
TOKYO ROSE.

Darkness at Noon, influential 1940 novel by
 ex-Communist Arthur Koestler that exposed
 
STALIN's 
GREAT PURGE trials, portraying the
 experience through the eyes of an old Bolshevik
 enmeshed in the political charade of a forced
 confession.

Darlan, Jean Francois (1881-1942), naval officer
 who commanded the French fleet during World War II
 and collaborated with the Nazis after the fall of
 France. He held several positions in the 
VICHY
 government, including naval minister and commander
 in chief of all French forces. He was in Algiers
 when Allied forces landed in North Africa in 1942.
 He then negotiated an arrangement with General
 Dwight D. 
EISENHOWER, in command of the invasion
 force, by which Darlan called for French forces to
 lay down their arms throughout North Africa in
 return for being named head of government in French
 North Africa. He was assassinated on December 24,
 1942.

Darrow, Clarence Seward (1857-1938), leading labor
 lawyer of the early 1900s and later defense
 attorney in some of the best-known cases of the
 century. As a labor lawyer he defended Eugene V.


 DEBS during the Pullman 
STRIKE of 1894. In 1907
 he cleared 
IWW leader William "Big Bill"
 
HAYWOOD of a charge of murder and later
 represented the 
MCNAMARA brothers, who pleaded
 guilty to the 1910 
LOS ANGELES TIMES BOMBING.
 Darrow's labor clients blamed him for causing the
 McNamaras to plead guilty, and labor then abandoned
 him to fight charges of jury tampering on his own,
 refusing to pay his fee, and causing him in turn to
 refuse future labor clients. In 1924 he defended
 
LEOPOLD AND LOEB and in 1925 was attorney for the
 defense in the 
SCOPES TRIAL (the "monkey trial")
 in Tennessee, the defense and case for which he is
 best known. Spencer Tracy portrayed Darrow in the
 1960 film Inherit the Wind.

Dart, Raymond A. (1893-1988), Australian-South
 African anatomist and physical anthropologist, who
 in 1924 discovered the first fossilized early human
 skull in South Africa, naming its species
 Australopithecus africanus, and who used his
 anatomical knowledge to postulate that the being
 walked on two legs, not four. Dart's theories that
 his species was a "missing link" between humans and
 apes and the corollary that humans developed in
 Africa, were at first greeted with scorn, but they
 inspired numerous fossil hunters, such as Louis and
 
MARY LEAKEY, in the years after World War II.

date that will live in infamy, a, phrase from U. S.
 president Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT's address to
 Congress on December 8, 1941, after the Japanese
 attack on 
PEARL HARBOR; from "Yesterday, December
 7, 1941-a date that will live in infamy-the United
 States of America was suddenly and deliberately
 attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of
 Japan."

Daud Khan, Sardar Mohammad (1909-78), Afghan
 officer, a member of the royal house, who became
 defense minister 1946-53, premier 1953-63, and
 leader of the revolution that toppled the monarchy
 in 1973, then becoming president of the new Afghan
 republic. He was assassinated in 1978 when a
 left-led military coup overthrew his government.

Daugherty, Harry Micajah (1860-1941), U.S. lawyer,
 Ohio state legislator (1890-1894), and manager of
 Warren G. 
HARDING'S successful 1920 campaign for
 the presidency, who in 1921 became U.S. attorney
 general and was widely charged with complicity in
 the 
TEAPOT DOME and other Harding administration
 scandals. He was never successfully impeached,
 survived two court trials, and continued to
 maintain his innocence of all charges.

Davis, Angela (1944- ), former professor of
 philosophy at the University of California, Black
 militant, and Communist, who was indicted for
 murder, conspiracy, and kidnapping for allegedly
 supplying the guns used by Jonathan Jackson during
 the 1970 shootings at the Marin County, California,
 courthouse, in which Judge Harold Haley and two
 inmates were killed and District Attorney Gary
 Thomas paralyzed. Davis became a fugitive, was
 later captured in New York City, and was then held
 without bail in California; a worldwide "Free
 Angela" movement eventually forced local
 authorities to grant bail. She was acquitted on all
 of the counts in the indictment.

Davis, Benjamin Oliver (1877-1970), U.S. officer,
 who saw service in the Philippines during the
 Spanish-American War, spent much of the interwar
 period as a military science teacher, and in 1940
 became the first Black general in the U.S. army. He
 saw European service in World War II as army race
 relations advisor.

Davis, John William (1873-1955), U.S. lawyer, West
 Virginia Democratic congressman (1911-13),
 solicitor-general and diplomat during the
 administrations of Woodrow 
WILSON, and
 unsuccessful Democratic presidential candidate who
 was defeated by Calvin 
COOLIDGE in 1924.

Dawes, Charles Gates (1865-1951), U.S. lawyer and
 banker, who was President William 
MCKINLEY'S
 comptroller of the currency, chief purchasing agent
 for the U.S. Army in France during World War I, and
 budget director in the 
HARDING administration. He
 worked out the 
DAWES PLAN regarding German
 reparations in 1924 and won a Nobel Peace Prize for
 it in 1925. He was Calvin 
COOLIDGE'S vice
 president (1925-29).

Dawes Plan (1924), a plan that resulted in the
 temporary stabilization of the German economy by
 arranging a package of international loans to
 Germany, amounting to almost 17 billion gold marks,
 which enabled the German government to comply with
 the reparations provisions of the Treaty of
 
VERSAILLES; named after Charles Gates 
DAWES,
 U.S. banker, who was vice president 1925-29.

Dawn Man, alternate name for Eoanthropus dawsoni,
 popularly called 
PILTDOWN MAN, early human-like
 fossil remains found in 1911-12 but proved
 fraudulent in the 1950s.

Day, Dorothy (1897-1980), U.S. journalist and
 socialist, who became a Catholic in 1927 and in
 1932 became part of a Catholic settlement house
 movement. She was co-founder of the pacifist and
 later antinuclear Catholic Worker, which became
 identified with her views and the many causes she
 espoused for the rest of her life. In later years
 it became a forum for those seeking change within
 the Catholic Church.

Dayan, Moshe (1915-81), Israeli officer, who saw
 service in the 
HAGANAH and with the British army
 during World War II. He was a Haganah officer
 during the 
ISRAELI WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (FIRST

 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR), commanding Israeli forces
 during the losing battle for Jerusalem. He was
 chief of staff 1953-58, commanding Israeli forces
 during the 
SINAI-SUEZ WAR (SECOND ARAB-ISRAELI

 WAR) of 1956. Going into politics, he became a
 
MAPAI party agriculture minister 1959-64, was
 defense minister 1967-74, and foreign minister
 1977-79. He then resigned, differing with Menachim
 
BEGIN'S harsh treatment of the Palestinian
 population of the 
WEST BANK.

D-Day (June 6, 1944), the date of the Allied
 
NORMANDY invasion in World War II.

DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), powerful,
 widely used insecticide banned in the 1970s; best
 known of many environmental chemicals whose promise
 was later found to have a darker side. Known from
 the 19th century, DDT was discovered in 1939 to be
 a powerful insecticide, by Swiss chemist Paul
 Muller, who won the 1948 Nobel Prize for Physiology
 or Medicine. Widely used by Allied armies in World
 War II and then by the general public, especially
 in agriculture, by the 1960s DDT was found to
 concentrate in the environment's food chains,
 proving toxic to many living things, especially
 thinning the shells of birds' eggs and leaving some
 species in danger of extinction; as a result DDT
 was banned by many countries, by the United States
 starting in 1972.

Dead Sea Scrolls, ancient leather-and-papyrus
 writings found in desert caves overlooking the Dead
 Sea in modern Israel; the first group was found in
 Qumran Cave in 1947 by some young shepherds. Most
 date from the first century 
B.C. to the mid-first
 century 
A.D., a few to the third century 
B.C.
 All are rare documents and include copies of books
 of the Bible centuries older than any previously
 known. They are of immense value to religious and
 secular scholars in shaping their view of the
 pivotal history of the time.

Dean, John Wesley III (1938- ), U.S. lawyer, a
 figure in the 
WATERGATE scandal, who was counsel
 to president Richard M. 
NIXON 1970-73. In 1973 he
 became a key Senate Watergate committee witness,
 charging Nixon and other conspirators with
 complicity in the affair. In October 1973, he
 pleaded guilty to conspiracy charges, ultimately
 serving 4 months in prison, and was disbarred. He
 wrote two books on Watergate: Blind Ambition (1976)
 and Lost Honor (1983).

death camps, a synonym for the German
 
CONCENTRATION CAMPS.

Death's Head Battalion, a section of the German SS,
 that provided the 
CONCENTRATION CAMP personnel
 who committed mass murder during the Nazi era.

death squads, bands of assassins, often operating
 as paramilitary units, and often with covert
 government support, whose role is to terrorize
 political opponents, as in Argentina during the
 
DIRTY WAR period of the late 1970s and early
 1980s and in El Salvador during the 1980s civil
 war. The term is a recent one; the technique is
 not.

Deaver, Michael K. (1938- ), U.S. political figure,
 a personal assistant to Ronald 
REAGAN 1967-85,
 who became a lobbyist after leaving the White House
 in May 1985. In 1987 he was convicted of perjury in
 connection with his lobbying activities, and in
 1988, after losing his Supreme Court appeal on the
 validity of the applicable lobbying law, he
 received a suspended sentence, was fined $100,000,
 and was barred from lobbying for 3 years.

De Bakey, Michael Ellis (1908- ), U.S. surgeon, who
 in 1967 first implanted an 
ARTIFICIAL HEART in a
 patient, using it to aid the patient's own heart
 for 4 days. De Bakey earlier contributed to the
 heart-lung machine-an external artificial
 heart-that allowed modern 
OPEN-HEART SURGERY. In
 the mid-1950s he also pioneered in the use of
 artificial tubes to replace damaged human blood
 vessels, and in 1964 in the surgical opening of a
 blocked aorta, leading to the 
CORONARY BYPASS
 procedure.

De Broglie, Louis Victor Pierre Raymond
 (1892-1987), French physicist, who first posited
 the wave nature of particles in 1923 and won the
 1929 Nobel Prize for Physics. Inspired by early
 work in 
QUANTUM THEORY and by Arthur Holly
 
COMPTON's assumption that light-long thought to
 be a wave-had particle-like qualities, his theory
 was confirmed in 1927 by experimental measurements
 that established 
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY.

Debs, Eugene Victor (1855-1926), U.S. railroad
 worker, who became a labor leader and the leading
 American socialist of his time. In 1893 he
 organized the American Railway Union, the first
 major industrial union in the United States, which
 was destroyed in the course of the Pullman Strike
 of 1894. Debs became a socialist while in jail
 after that strike. He was Social-Democratic
 presidential candidate in 1900, led in the
 organization of the 
SOCIALIST PARTY in 1901, and
 was Socialist presidential candidate in 1904, 1908,
 1912, and 1920, receiving over 900,000 votes in the
 elections of 1912 and 1920, the 1912 total being
 more than 6% of the total vote. He strongly opposed
 U.S. participation in World War I and was
 imprisoned for that opposition in 1918, receiving a
 ten-year sentence that was commuted in 1921. He
 thereafter continued to work as a socialist writer
 and leader.

Decline of the West, a thesis positing democracy as
 decadent in historical terms and urging Germans to
 end the democracy of the 
WIEMAR REPUBLIC in favor
 of authoritarianism; it was advanced by Oswald
 
SPENGLER in his 1922 book of that name. The
 attack and theory helped pave the way for German
 fascism.

Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP), organized effort
 to take core samples from seabeds worldwide, using
 pipes punched deep into the earth. The U.S.
 drilling ship Glomar Challenger (1968-83) supplied
 geological information on the development and
 resources of the Earth.

Deep Throat, Bob Woodward's informant on the
 
WATERGATE scandal, one of the chief characters in
 Woodward and Carl 
BERNSTEIN's book All the
 President's Men (1974), about their uncovering of
 the scandal. Nicknamed after a popular pornographic
 film of the period, Deep Throat was someone who
 apparently had access to extremely confidential
 information up to the highest levels of the White
 House. Again and again, he (or she) led Woodward
 and Bernstein further into the unfolding Watergate
 story, though never completely revealing every
 aspect. At first Woodward and Deep Throat
 communicated by telephone. Later, as the scandal
 deepened, Deep Throat became alarmed, would not use
 the telephone, and met with Woodward in secluded
 places, including the garage featured in the Robert
 Redford-Dustin Hoffman film of the book, with Hal
 Holbrook playing Deep Throat. The identity of Deep
 Throat has never been revealed, though years later
 guesses continue to abound.

De Forest, Lee (1873-1961), electrical engineer and
 inventor, who developed the triode 
ELECTRON TUBE,
 basic to the growth of 
ELECTRONICS. A pioneer of
 
WIRELESS telegraphy and early 
RADIO, De Forest
 made contributions both to radio engineering and to
 its public popularity. After World War I he
 developed a sound system for motion pictures,
 demonstrating it first in 1923, though it was put
 into effect much later. He also worked in many
 other areas, including 
TELEVISION and 
RADAR.

De Gasperi, Alcide (1881-1954), Italian political
 leader, who successfully worked for the
 reunification of his native Trento with Italy and
 entered the Italian Chamber of Deputies in 1921.
 From 1922 he opposed fascism as leader of the
 Popular party, was imprisoned twice, and from 1931
 worked in the Vatican Library. During World War II
 he organized the illegal Christian Democratic party
 and was premier 1945-53, the years of renascent
 Italian democracy. In that position he built a
 series of center coalitions, moved Italy toward the
 European Coal and Steel Community, the forerunner
 of the 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY, and took the Western
 side in the cold war, opposing communism and
 refusing to include the Italian Communist party and
 other far left forces in the Italian government.

De Gaulle, Charles Andre Joseph Marie (1890-1970),
 French officer, who saw service in World War I,
 became a war prisoner at 
VERDUN, and continued
 his army career during the interwar period while
 writing several books on military matters. A tank
 force colonel at the beginning of World War II, he
 quickly became a brigadier general and member of
 the French cabinet. Fleeing to Great Britain rather
 than surrender in 1940, he there organized the
 
FREE FRENCH movement. In 1943 and 1944 he emerged
 as leader of the French government-in-exile, and on
 August 25, 1944, led the parade that celebrated the
 
LIBERATION OF PARIS. He headed the first postwar
 provisonal government of France but resigned in
 January 1946 when overruled as taking an
 antidemocratic view on matters relating to the form
 of the coming Fourth Republic. He then retired from
 public life, having failed in an attempt to rally
 support in 1947. On June 1, 1958, at the height of
 the civil disturbances generated by the 
ALGERIAN

 WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, and with civil war
 threatening France, he became premier, developing a
 new constitution. In September the constitution was
 accepted; in January 1959 he became president of
 the Fifth Republic. He then took several steps to
 stablilize the French economy, including
 devaluation of the franc. Internationally, he took
 a sharply independent course, fostering the
 development of French atomic weapons, expelling
 NATO forces, opposing British 
COMMON MARKET
 entry, and in several other ways moving away from
 Great Britain and the United States. During 1960
 and 1961 he suppressed French civil and military
 insurrections in Algeria and in 1962 agreed to
 Algerian independence; in the same period he began
 the liquidation of all former French colonial
 arrangements in Africa. Economic problems and
 widespread student demonstrations preceded his
 resignation in January 1969.

Deir Yasin, small Palestinian Arab village near
 Jerusalem. On April 9, 1948, during the 
ISRAELI

 WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR),
 
IRGUN ZVAI LEUMI and 
STERN GANG units attacked
 Deir Yasin, killing all 254 of its inhabitants,
 most of them noncombatant men, women, and children.


De Leon, Daniel (1852-1914), U.S. orthodox Marxist,
 who became a leader of the Socialist Labor Party in
 the 1890s and joined William D. 
HAYWOOD and
 Eugene V. 
DEBS in founding the 
INDUSTRIAL

 WORKERS OF THE WORLD (IWW) in 1905; he left in
 1908 in a doctrinal dispute.

Dellinger, David (1915- ), U.S. pacifist and peace
 activist, who became a leading opponent of the
 
VIETNAM WAR; beginning in 1965 he helped to
 organize what became massive antiwar
 demonstrations. He was convicted with the rest of
 the 
CHICAGO SEVEN after the 
CHICAGO DEMOCRATIC

 CONVENTION of 1968; the conviction was later
 reversed.

Demara, Ferdinand, U.S. man dubbed by the media as
 the "Great Imposter" who, during the 1940s and
 1950s, falsely posed as a professional in a
 considerable body of occupations, many of them
 requiring great skill and some requiring
 certification. He posed, for example, as a surgeon,
 a psychology professor, a cancer researcher, and a
 clergyman, apparently practicing all or most of his
 professions rather competently; but he was often
 caught and in several instances imprisoned.

Demjanjuk, John, 
TREBLINKA concentration camp
 guard known as "Ivan the Terrible," who was
 extradited from the United States to Israel in
 1986, charged with 
DEATH CAMP crimes, and
 sentenced to death by an Israeli court on April 25,
 1988.

Democratic party, one of the two major U.S.
 political parties, formally adopting the name in
 1840. During the 20th century, the party has been
 in power 40 of 89 years, during the presidencies of
 Woodrow 
WILSON, Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT, Harry S.
 
TRUMAN, John F. 
KENNEDY, Lyndon B. 
JOHNSON,
 and Jimmy 
CARTER. It has been a party of shifting
 coalitions. By far the most successful of these was
 the Roosevelt coalition, which joined emerging
 ethnic and labor groups to existing big city
 machines, the then-solid Democratic South, and a
 national liberal constituency within the context of
 the 
GREAT DEPRESSION and World War II. After the
 1950s that coalition eroded, with suburbanization,
 the growth of a prosperous middle class, and
 population shifts; it also splintered over the
 issues raised by the 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT and
 the 
VIETNAM WAR. A new set of political
 alignments developed with Black enfranchisement,
 coupled with the emergence of a new conservatism;
 the "solid" Democratic South then became an
 almost-solid Republican South, and the net result
 was Republican occupancy of the White House 1968-76
 and 1980-90.

Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the portion
 of Korea above the 38th parallel that became an
 independent state on September 9, 1948. Continuing
 tension between the two Korean states led in 1950
 to the 
KOREAN WAR, involving the United States,
 the UN, and China; it was followed by a
 decades-long stalemate between the two Koreas.

democratic centralism, the wholly misleading term
 used by 
LENIN to describe the main feature of
 Communist Party discipline in his era: the
 concerted, undeviating execution of all party
 decisions by members, however those decisions were
 derived and without regard to personal agreement
 with those decisions.

dendrochronology, system of dating based on tree
 rings-the wood laid down by annual growth-which
 vary year by year according to conditions and form
 a distinctive pattern; a technique developed and
 named about 1920 by Andrew Ellicott 
DOUGLASS.
 Starting with living trees, scientists could work
 their way backward, matching the tree-ring patterns
 from trees of varying age, well over 3,000 years, a
 technique of great use in archaeology as well as
 forestry.

Deng Xiaoping (T'eng Hsiao-ping; 1904- ), leader of
 the 
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA who became a
 Communist while in France in the 1920s and was a
 Communist Party instructor and political commissar
 during the the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR. In 1934 he made
 the 
LONG MARCH north with 
MAO ZEDONG and the
 other leaders of Chinese communism. After 1949 he
 continued to rise in the Chinese government, was
 purged during the 
CULTURAL REVOLUTION of the late
 1960s, and was then rehabilitated in 1973. He and
 
ZHOU ENLAI then led the moderates in China, but
 he was purged again in 1976 after Zhou's death.
 When 
JIANG QING and what came to be known as the
 
GANG OF FOUR lost power after Mao's death in
 1976, Deng was once again rehabilitated. He moved
 into effective leadership of China and from that
 position of strength directed the country into its
 modern course, which included a major opening to
 the west during the 1970s, normalization of
 relations with the Soviet Union (as signaled by the
 
GORBACHEV visit of 1989) and extensive economic
 reforms. He also fostered much increased freedom of
 expression in China but resisted the liberalization
 of Chinese political institutions, taking the
 conservative side in the crisis generated by the
 
CHINESE STUDENT DEMONSTRATIONS of 1989.

Denikin, Anton (1872-1947), Czarist army officer
 and general of the White armies fighting in the Don
 region during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR; his forces
 were defeated by late 1919, and he went into exile.


Dennis v. United States (1951), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision, sustaining as
 constitutional the conviction of 11 Communist Party
 leaders under the conspiracy provisions of the
 
SMITH ACT and effectively outlawing the Communist
 party. A major 
MCCARTHY period decision, for some
 years it greatly diminished First Amendment free
 speech guarantees.

DES (diethylstilbestrol), synthetic 
ESTROGEN;
 from 1940 prescribed for many pregnant mothers to
 prevent miscarriage. It was banned by the 
FDA in
 1971 after evidence emerged that the daughters of
 those mothers later tended to develop otherwise
 rare cancers of the reproductive organs.

DeSalvo, Albert H. (1933-73), killer known as the
 Boston Strangler, who sexually assaulted and then
 strangled 13 women from June 1962 through January
 1964; he ultimately confessed to the crimes. He was
 murdered in his jail cell in 1973.

desaparacios (the disappeareds), the estimated
 40,000 Argentinians murdered by the 
DEATH SQUADS
 during the 
DIRTY WAR conducted by Argentina's
 military government 1976-82.

Desert Fox, The, the popular name of World War II
 German general Erwin 
ROMMEL.

Desert One (April 24-25, 1980), code name for the
 aborted U.S. armed forces attempt to rescue the
 American hostages held by Iran during the 
IRAN

 HOSTAGE CRISIS; helicopter breakdowns in
 sandstorms caused cancellation of the operation,
 and eight lives were lost in an airplane collision.


de-Stalinization, the several processes involved in
 ending the unrestrained secret police reign of
 terror that was a main feature of Soviet life from
 the early 1930s until the death of Joseph 
STALIN
 in 1953. In 1956, with 
KHRUSHCHEV'S SECRET

 SPEECH, the attack on Stalin, his methods, and
 some of his old associates became explicit, as
 Nikita Khrushchev sought to destroy the Stalinist
 
CULT OF PERSONALITY.

Destroyers for bases swap (September 1940), World
 War II American-British agreement by which the
 United States supplied Britain with 50 American
 destroyers in return for bases on British
 territories in the Western Hemisphere; in reality,
 a gift of badly needed destroyers to Britain, then
 engaged in the Battle of the 
ATLANTIC.

detente, the long-term attempt to relax the
 Soviet-American 
COLD WAR tensions that nearly
 brought the world to nuclear war during the 
CUBAN

 MISSILE CRISIS of 1962. The approach dates from
 1962; the use of the term detente to describe it
 was most pronounced in the early 1970s, a period of
 thaw in Soviet-American relations, thought at the
 time to be leading to the end of the cold war.
 President Richard M. 
NIXON and Secretary of State
 Henry 
KISSINGER adopted the concept as basic U.S.
 policy and with U.S.S.R. premier Leonid 
BREZHNEV
 fostered it in a series of three 
NIXON-BREZHNEV

 SUMMITS.

deterrence, a nuclear age theory postulating that
 the way to avoid massive nuclear war between the
 United States and the Soviet Union is to maintain
 so strong a nuclear arsenal as to make general
 nuclear war too costly to seriously contemplate; it
 is the major theory governing the development of
 the superpower nuclear arsenals in the modern
 period.

deuterium, 
ISOTOPE of hydrogen, with twice the
 mass of ordinary hydrogen, like 
TRITIUM a form of
 heavy hydrogen; discovered by Harold C. 
UREY in
 1931. Deuterium was soon being used as a
 radioactive tracer in the study of biochemical
 reactions in living tissue. Later it was used as an
 energy source in the 
HYDROGEN BOMB or in a
 
NUCLEAR FUSION generator  and also in 
HEAVY

 WATER-water made with high proportions of
 deuterium replacing regular hydrogen-used in
 
NUCLEAR REACTORS.

De Valera, Eamon (1881-1975), Irish Republican
 leader, who became first president of the Irish
 Republic in April 1919 while in prison. He escaped
 from prison and spent the balance of the 
IRISH WAR

 OF INDEPENDENCE raising money and support abroad.
 He and his supporters did not accept the peace of
 1921, with its partition of Ireland, but lost the
 resulting 
IRISH CIVIL WAR to the Irish Free State
 forces led by Michael 
COLLINS. He was then jailed
 for a year, but in 1926 accepted the settlement and
 founded the Fianna Fail party, becoming Irish prime
 minister in 1932. He held that post for 21 of the
 next 27 years.

Dewey, John (1859-1952), U.S. philosopher and
 educator, advocate of "democracy in education," the
 title of his seminal book, published in 1916. His
 views, most often called "instrumentalist,"
 developed in part from the pragmatism of William
 
JAMES and provided the basis for much
 20th-century teaching practice, which stressed the
 educational value of practical experience while
 rejecting the rote learning and and other
 authoritarian classrooom practices of an earlier
 day. His thinking also provided much of the basis
 for the "progressive education" and ""vocational
 training'' movements, both of which he sharply
 criticized for too often dispensing with what he
 considered the essential cultural and historical
 elements necessary for liberal education in a
 democracy.

Dewey, Thomas Edmund (1902-71), U.S. lawyer,
 prosecutor, three-term governor of New York
 (1942-54), and twice unsuccessful Republican
 presidential candidate (1944 and 1948). In 1935,
 while an assistant U.S. attorney for the southern
 district of New York, he became nationally
 recognized as a successful prosecutor of organized
 crime and municipal corruption. He was elected
 Manhattan district attorney in 1937, nearly won the
 Republican presidential nomination in 1940, and won
 his first gubernatorial election in 1942. But he
 was defeated for the presidency by Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT, who won his fourth term in 1944, and
 again by Harry S. 
TRUMAN in 1948 in a very close
 election-so close that many newspapers erroneously
 announced Dewey's victory on the night of the
 election.

Diamond Sutra, oldest full printed book known,
 dating from 868 
A.D., sealed in a cave near
 China's old Silk Road in the 11th century,
 rediscovered by a Chinese monk in about 1904, and
 taken out of China shortly thereafter by Marc Aurel
 
STEIN.

Diamond v. Chakrabarty, key case establishing that
 genetically engineered biological organisms could
 be patented under U.S. federal law. The subject was
 a microbe, Pseudomoma originosa, genetically
 engineered by a General Electric employee, Ananda
 M. Chakrabarty, from four different strains of
 bacteria; it was intended to break down crude oil.
 The parties to the case changed several times, but
 in 1980 the Supreme Court ruled that GE could
 patent the microbe. 
GENETIC ENGINEERING firms
 rejoiced while critics warned that Aldous Huxley's
 Brave New World had finally arrived.

Diaz, Porforio (1830-1915), Mexican lawyer, who
 fought in the Mexican-American war and became a
 revolutionary general in the army of Benito Juarez.
 Diaz took power by force in 1876 and ruled Mexico
 until 1911. In those years he brought increased
 economic development to Mexico, often at the
 expense of the Mexican peasantry and urban poor. In
 1908 he announced a new era of democracy for Mexico
 and in 1910 allowed Franciso 
MADERO to run
 against him for the presidency; but when threatened
 with defeat he arrested Madero and thousands of his
 supporters and had himself declared victor in the
 election. Madero fled to Texas, from there
 organizing the armed revolt that in May 1911 forced
 Diaz to resign.

Diefenbaker, John George (1895-1979), Canadian
 lawyer, in parliament 1940-79, who became
 Conservative party leader in 1956 and was prime
 minister 1957-63, losing his party leadership in
 1967. In office he encountered substantial economic
 problems and a growing French-Canadian separatist
 movement, and for a time resisted U.S. pressure to
 arm Canada-based 
MISSILES with nuclear warheads.


Diem, Ngo Dinh (1901-63), Vietnamese political
 leader, who became South Vietnamese prime minister
 in 1954, in the last 
BAO DAI government, and then
 president of South Vietnam in 1955. He then became
 military dictator of the country, with his brother,
 Ngo Dinh Nhu, functioning as head of his secret
 police. After a series of internal conflicts, the
 last of them with Buddhist organizations, a group
 of generals, operating with U.S. approval, deposed
 him on November 1, 1963. He and his brother were
 killed on November 2.

Dien Bien Phu, Siege of (March-May 1954), the
 decisive battle of the 
FRENCH-VIETNAMESE WAR, in
 which this heavily fortified Laos-Vietnam border
 town, with a French garrison of 16,000, was
 successfully besieged by the North Vietnamese army.
 The French had seriously underestimated the
 relative strengths of the two forces, trapping
 their own forces in a position that could be
 supplied only by air and could not be relieved by
 available French forces. After surrender of the
 remaining French forces, the French agreed to
 withdraw from Vietnam.

Dieppe Raid (August 19, 1942), a World War II
 cross-Channel raid by almost 6,000 Canadian and
 British troops. The attack failed, with more than
 3,000 casualties and the loss of much equipment, as
 the invading force was quickly repelled by German
 shore defense units.

Dies, Martin, Jr. (1901-72), U.S. congressman, who
 in 1938 organized the first 
HOUSE COMMITTEE TO

 INVESTIGATE UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES (HUAC), which
 during his tenure as its head was known as the Dies
 Committee. Dies and his committee strongly attacked
 President Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT, the 
NEW
 
DEAL, THE CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS
 (CIO), and a host of other individuals and
 organizations as pro-Communist. In this he was
 warmly supported by some of those most vigorously
 opposed to New Deal social programs and to the
 principle of labor organization, and he was
 simultaneously sharply attacked by very substantial
 forces drawn from throughout the political
 spectrum, who described his tactics as those of the
 witchhunt.

digital computer, type of 
COMPUTER that deals in
 discrete variables, such as numbers or on-off
 signals; in contrast to 
ANALOG COMPUTERS, which
 work with continuous variables, such as temperature
 or voltage. The first fully electronic 
DIGITAL

 COMPUTER was the 
ATANASOFF-BERRY COMPUTER (ABC),
 built 1937-42. An electromechanical computer, the
 
MARK I, was built in the United States 1939-44.
 In 1943 a British team headed by Alan 
TURING
 built the all-electronic 
COLOSSUS, designed to
 break German codes. In the United States, the
 
ENIAC, long regarded the first fully electronic
 computer in America, was built 1942-46. Most 20th
 century computers are of the digital type.

Dillinger, John Herbert (1903-34), U.S. midwestern
 murderer and bank robber of the early 1930s, whose
 jailbreaks, gun battles, and series of
 confrontations with a publicity-seeking 
FEDERAL

 BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION brought him national
 publicity as "Public Enemy Number One." He was
 killed by FBI agents in Chicago on July 22, l934.


Dimitrov, Georgi Mikhailovich (1882-1949),
 Bulgarian Communist organizer, who in 1933 was
 accused by the Nazis of responsibility for the
 
REICHSTAG FIRE and won his release after a trial
 that generated worldwide attention. He headed the
 
COMINTERN 1934-43, signaling a major Communist
 strategic turn in 1935 in his 
UNITED FRONT
 speech. He took power in Bulgaria after Soviet
 occupation in 1945 and was prime minister 1946-49.


dioxin, family of highly poisonous, carcinogenic
 compounds, one of which
 (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-P-dioxin, or
 2,3,7,8-TCDD) is considered to be one of the most
 dangerous of chemicals in 
TOXIC WASTE DUMPS.
 Dioxin was a key constituent of the herbicide
 code-named 
AGENT ORANGE, employed as a defoliant
 by the U.S. Army in the 
VIETNAM WAR. It also
 figured in numerous cases of toxic chemical waste
 problems, notably at 
LOVE CANAL, TIMES BEACH,
 Missouri, and in 
SEVESO, Italy.

diphtheria, widespread, much-feared childhood
 disease for which the 
SCHICK TEST was developed
 in 1913.

Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice (1902-84), British
 mathematical physicist, who first predicted the
 existence of 
ANTIMATTER. Inspired by Louis 
DE

 BROGLIE'S work on the wave properties of
 fundamental particles like 
ELECTRONS, from the
 late 1920s Dirac worked to develop the mathematical
 implications and underpinnings of wave mechanics in
 
QUANTUM THEORY. In 1928 his work led him to
 suggest that the electron had a twin with an
 opposite charge, this positron (originally called
 an antielectron) being discovered in 1932 by U.S.
 physicist Carl D. Anderson. Dirac shared the 1933
 Nobel Prize for Physics with Erwin 
SCHRODINGER,
 with whom he worked at the Dublin Institute for
 Advanced Studies from 1940.

dirigible, cigar-shaped, balloon-like airship
 filled with a lighter-than-air gas, either hydrogen
 (very light but highly flammable) or helium
 (nonflammable but not as light). The first rigid
 dirigible was built by German Count Ferdinand von
 
ZEPPELIN in 1900; dirigibles were sometimes
 called zeppelins in his honor. The British R34
 dirigible crossed the Atlantic in 1919; the German
 Graf Zeppelin circled the globe 10 years later.
 From 1932 to 1937, the Graf Zeppelin and the
 Hindenburg were in regular trans-Atlantic service
 from Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany, to the U.S. and
 Brazil. But in 1937 the hydrogen-filled Hindenburg
 exploded on being moored at Lakehurst, New Jersey,
 killing 36 people. This disaster and a general
 vulnerability to storms effectively ended dirigible
 development, though nonrigid, helium-filled
 dirigibles called blimps remained in small-scale
 use.

dirty tricks campaign, a series of actions directed
 against political opponents of U.S. president
 Richard M. 
NIXON, organized by Donald Segretti,
 who was employed by Nixon's subordinates; part of
 the series of related scandals exposed as the
 
WATERGATE affair unfolded.

dirty war (1976-82), a campaign of state terrorism,
 carried out by Argentina's military government
 against all opponents of the regime, which resulted
 in the murders of tens of thousands of Argentinian
 citizens, called the 
DESAPARACIOS (the
 disappeareds), some estimates running as high as
 40,000. Upon restoration of democracy in 1983 the
 new government moved to prosecute some of those
 responsible for the mass murders.

disappeareds, the, English translation of the term
 
DESAPARACIOS, referring to the many Argentinians
 murdered by the government 1976-82.

Dixiecrats, Southern Democrats who bolted their
 party in 1948, refusing to accept the civil rights
 plank in the Democratic platform that year and
 running their own candidates, J. Strom Thurmond and
 Fielding Wright, for the presidency and
 vice-presidency. The Thurmond-Wright ticket won 39
 electoral votes and polled over l.1 million votes
 but failed to stop the election of Harry S.
 
TRUMAN to the presidency.

Djibouti (Republic of Djibouti), until the
 achievement of national independence on June 27,
 1977, a French colony, known until 1967 as French
 Somaliland and as the Territory of the Afars and
 Issas 1967-77. The new country was from the
 beginning a one-party state, led by president
 Hassan Gouled Aptidon.

Djilas, Milovan (1911- ), Yugoslav lawyer, writer,
 World War II partisan fighter, and Communist leader
 who was closely associated with 
TITO during and
 after World War II. In 1954 he became Yugoslavia's
 best-known dissenter and then became a world figure
 with publication of The New Class (1957), which was
 followed by other highly critical works; he was
 imprisoned 1956-61 and 1962- 66.

DMZ (Demilitarized Zone), a 5-mile-wide buffer zone
 between North and South Vietnam, established by the
 French-North Vietnamese 
GENEVA ACCORDS of 1954.
 It became a front line and the site of a series of
 battles during the 
VIETNAM WAR.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic
 acid), molecules that make up 
GENES and carry
 basic hereditary information, first discovered and
 explored chemically in 1909 by Phoebus Aaron
 Theodor Levene. Erwin 
SCHRODINGER, in his 1944
 work, What Is Life?, outlined how a set of chemical
 codes might determine genetic inheritance,
 inspiring further work on the structure of DNA.
 Building on earlier studies of DNA by British
 researchers Maurice 
WILKINS and Rosalind
 
FRANKLIN, using 
X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, an
 unorthodox pair of molecular biologists-American
 James 
WATSON and British Francis 
CRICK-worked
 at Cambridge University's Cavendish Laboratory in
 the early 1950s, seeking to clarify the molecular
 structure of the gene, especially how it replicated
 itself. In 1953 they found their answer: the DNA
 was made up of two strands of paired molecules in a
 twisting, ladder-like form called a 
DOUBLE HELIX.
 The DNA passes on "instructions" to RNA, which
 reproduces itself by duplicating the paired
 molecules, an understanding worked out in the 1960s
 by various scientists, including Jacques 
MONOD.
 DNA and RNA are the very stuff of life and
 represent the "genetic code" that determines the
 characteristics of living beings, as was confirmed
 by Charles Yanofsky's research team in 1967. In
 that year other researchers demonstrated that the
 same basic DNA code is used by Earth's various
 forms of life, and a team headed by Arthur Kornberg
 succeeded in synthesizing active DNA. Meanwhile
 others (including Crick) continued to work out the
 actual codes being used and to identify 
GENETIC

 MARKERS, parts of a DNA molecule linked with a
 specific genetic disease or defect. 
GENETIC

 ENGINEERING developed in 1973; strands of DNA are
 "cut and pasted" into new forms, the result being
 
RECOMBINANT DNA.

doctor's plot (1953), the arrest of nine Soviet
 doctors in January 1953, six of them Jewish, who
 were collectively charged with and confessed to the
 murder of Communist Party leader Andrei 
ZHDANOV
 in 1948 and also confessed to conspiracy to murder
 many other Soviet leaders. Nikita 
KHRUSHCHEV, in
 his 1956 
SECRET SPEECH, called the "plot" a  plan
 by Joseph 
STALIN to begin a massive new Soviet
 purge with strongly anti-Semitic features. Stalin
 soon died, however; his secret police chief,
 Lavrenti 
BERIA, declared that the doctors'
 confessions had been elicited by torture and were
 false. Two doctors died in prison; the others were
 released. Beria was arrested in June 1953 and
 executed.

Doctor Zhivago (1957), a Boris 
PASTERNAK novel
 celebrating the triumph of the individual artist's
 will to be free over the coercive power of the
 Soviet state. The book took as its period the years
 before and during World War I, followed by the
 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION and 
CIVIL WAR. The work,
 banned in the Soviet Union, was published abroad,
 becoming a best-seller in many languages and
 achieving wide underground circulation in the
 Soviet Union. Pasternak was awarded the 1958 Nobel
 Prize for Literature but was forced to refuse it.
 In 1965 the book was adapted for film by David
 Lean.

Doenitz, Karl (1891-1980), German naval officer,
 who became a submarine commander in World War I,
 and who in 1936 became commander of the submarine
 section of the German fleet. During World War II he
 commanded the German submarine campaign, and became
 naval commander-in-chief in January 1943. After the
 death of Adolf 
HITLER, Doenitz claimed for a week
 to be German chancellor and unsuccessfully tried to
 negotiate peace with the Allies, surrendering
 unconditionally on May 7, 1945. He was sentenced to
 a 10-year term of imprisonment after his conviction
 at the 
NUREMBERG WAR CRIMES TRIALS in 1946.

Dole, Elizabeth Hanford (1936- ), U.S. lawyer and
 Republican political leader, a member of the
 Federal Trade Commission 1973-80, transportation
 secretary 1983-87, and labor secretary from 1989.
 She is the wife of Republican senate leader Robert
 
DOLE.

Dole, Robert Joseph (1923- ), U.S. lawyer, Kansas
 Republican congressman 1961-69, and senator from
 1969. Dole was chairman of the Republican National
 Committee 1971-73 and Senate minority leader from
 1985. A longtime and powerful Republican leader,
 Dole was his party's vice-presidential candidate in
 the lost 1976 presidential campaign, sought the
 presidential nomination in 1980 and 1988, and was
 for a time in 1988 the frontrunner. He is married
 to Elizabeth Hanford 
DOLE.

Dollfuss, Engelbert (1892-1934), Austrian
 politician, who became chancellor in 1932 and ended
 Austrian democracy in 1934, outlawing all parties
 but his own and forcibly suppressing the Social
 Democratic protests that followed, killing and
 jailing many of the protesters. With Italian
 fascist support he resisted German annexation
 pressures but was assassinated by Austrian Nazis
 during a failed coup attempt on July 25, 1934.

Dominica (Commonwealth of Dominica), until 1978, a
 British colony, with internal autonomy from 1967
 and full independence and 
COMMONWEALTH membership
 from November 3, 1978.

Dominican Republic Civil War (1965-66), conflict
 that started with a revolt in late April 1965
 against the military government that had come to
 power in the coup that toppled the elected
 government of Juan 
BOSCH in 1963. Although the
 aim of the revolt was to restore constitutional
 government, accusations of Communist influence on
 the rebel forces led President Lyndon 
JOHNSON to
 intervene against the revolutionaries, sending in
 a U.S. force within a few days. American troops
 numbered almost 21,000 by late May. As
 
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES (OAS) peacekeeping
 forces began to arrive, some American troops were
 withdrawn. Fighting continued after establishment
 of a provisional government in August 1965 and came
 to an end after the election of June 1966, in which
 Joaquin 
BALAGUER defeated Juan 
BOSCH;
 constitutional government was then restored.

Dominican Republic interventions, actions in the
 Dominican Republic, beginning in 1905 with a U.S.
 takeover and administration of Dominican Republic
 customs duties and with American investment and
 presence thereafter increasing. U.S. forces openly
 occupied the country 1916-24. In 1965 President
 Lyndon B. 
JOHNSON sent U.S. forces to intervene
 once again, during the 
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC CIVIL

 WAR.

domino theory, the belief of some Americans that
 the loss of South Vietnam to the North Vietnamese
 Communist government would inevitably lead to
 Communist conquest of the other countries of
 Southeast Asia; the belief was not borne out by
 subsequent developments.

Dona Paz sinking (December 20, 1987), sinking of
 the inter-island ferry Dona Paz after it collided
 with the oil tanker Victor in Philippine waters. At
 least 1,750 on the overcrowded ferry were killed,
 and the death toll may have been as high as 3,000,
 as passenger lists were far from complete. It was
 the 20th century's worst peacetime maritime
 disaster.

Donovan, William Joseph "Wild Bill" (1883-1959),
 U.S. lawyer and army officer, who saw service in
 Mexico and in World War I. In the mid-1930s, at
 Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT'S request, he began to
 plan the intelligence organization that in 1942
 became the World War II 
OFFICE OF STRATEGIC

 SERVICES (OSS), the forerunner of the 
CENTRAL

 INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA). He operated as the
 freewheeling head of the OSS during World War II.


Dooley, Thomas Anthony (1927-61), U.S. physician,
 who devoted his life to improving medical care in
 Southeast Asia. Treating Vietnamese refugees first
 in 1954 while a U.S. Navy medical officer, Dooley
 organized camps and medical services in Haiphong,
 as detailed in Deliver Us from Evil (1956). As a
 private citizen Dooley (with Peter D. Comanduras)
 founded an inter-

national organization for medical aid, called
 Medico. Using royalties from his books and
 contributions to Medico, he founded hospitals and
 medical missions in various parts of Cambodia,
 Laos, and Vietnam until felled by cancer.

Doolittle raid (April 18, 1942), the bombing of
 Japanese cities, including Tokyo, by carrier-based
 B-25 bombers led by Lieutenant Colonel James
 Doolittle; a largely symbolic action, aimed at
 building Allied morale during the most difficult
 days of World War II in the Pacific.

Dorpat, Treaty of (October 1920), recognized the
 independence of Finland and Estonia after their
 respective wars of independence.

double helix, twisting, ladder-like form, made up
 of two strands of paired molecules; the basic
 structure of DNA, discovered by Francis 
CRICK and
 James 
WATSON in 1953.

Douglas, Helen Gahagan (1900-80), U.S. actress, a
 Broadway star in the early 1920s, who appeared in
 movies during the 1930s and went into California
 politics as a liberal Democrat in the late 1930s.
 She was a California congresswoman 1945-50, giving
 up her seat to run for the Senate against Richard
 M. 
NIXON in 1950. Nixon successfully attacked her
 liberal record, strongly implying that Douglas was
 a Communist, tactics that worked extremely well
 during the 
MCCARTHY period. Nixon won the
 election; Douglas did not again run for public
 office. She was married to actor Melvyn Douglas.

Douglas, William Orville (1898-1980), U.S. lawyer,
 law professor, author, and chairman of the
 
SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION 1937-39. He
 was appointed to the Supreme Court by Franklin D.
 
ROOSEVELT in 1939. During his 36 years on the
 Court, he strongly defended the Bill of Rights,
 became one of the Court's leading liberals, and
 continued to write and travel extensively, until a
 stroke in 1974 diminished his physical capacity and
 ultimately caused his retirement in 1975.

Douglass, Andrew Ellicott (1867-1962), U.S.
 astronomer who, while studying sunspot activity in
 the American Southwest at the turn of the century,
 found that tree rings-the wood laid down by annual
 growth-varied year to year, developing a
 distinctive pattern. By 1920 he had turned this
 knowledge into a dating system, dubbed
 
DENDROCHRONOLOGY.

Dowager Empress, Western name for 
T'SU HSI, the
 last Manchu ruler of China, who was regent until
 1908 and whose conservative policies did much to
 create the conditions for the 
CHINESE REVOLUTION

 OF 1911.

Dresden raids (February 13-14, 1945), Allied
 bombing attacks on Dresden, Germany, which created
 firestorms that destroyed much of the city, with an
 estimated 100,000 deaths and hundreds of thousands
 of other casualties.

Drew, Charles Richard (1904-50), U.S. physician,
 who in 1940 first formulated plans for large-scale
 storage of blood plasma in 
BLOOD BANKS. At the
 start of World War II, Drew supervised the blood
 plasma programs first for Britain, for which blood
 was collected in America, and then for the United
 States, directing the American Red Cross's blood
 donor program from 1941. Ironically, he was at
 first barred by the Red Cross from donating blood
 himself, because he was Black; that policy was
 changed at the protest of Drew and others, though
 blood from Blacks was still kept separate,
 apparently at the request of the armed forces. As a
 result, Drew resigned in protest, to become a
 teacher.

Drexel, Burnham, Lambert case, charges of multiple,
 massive securities law violations, brought against
 Drexel, Burnham, Lambert in September 1988, after a
 2-year federal investigation, assisted by convicted
 stock manipulator Ivan 
BOESKY; most violations
 were in connection with its "junk bond" operations,
 which were headed by Michael 
MILKEN.
 Subsequently, Drexel was charged with a series of
 felony securities frauds; in December 1988, Drexel
 and the government tentatively agreed to a
 settlement of all charges, with Drexel paying $650
 million and firing Milken, who was later charged on
 his own.

Druse Rebellion (1925-27), a revolt against French
 rule by the Druse people of southern Syria, which
 began in July 1925. The Druses quickly took control
 of the south and by December had forced the French
 out of Damascus as well. But French forces armed
 with modern weapons, including tanks and airplanes,
 ultimately defeated the Druses. The war ended in
 June 1927.

Duarte, Jose Napoleon (1926-90), Salvadoran
 engineer, a founder of the Christian Democratic
 party in 1960. Losing in an attempt to take power
 after a stolen presidential election, he went into
 exile in 1972, returning after the military coup of
 1979, and from 1980 led moderate forces in his
 country. Strongly supported by the United States,
 Duarte led the governing junta during the early
 1980s and was elected president by those voting in
 1984; the insurgents boycotted the election. During
 the late 1980s, in failing health, he repeatedly
 attempted to negotiate an end to the El 
SALVADOR

 CIVIL WAR but without success.

Dubcek, Alexander (1921- ), Slovak Communist party
 leader, a World War II resistance fighter who
 became a Communist official in 1949, head of the
 Slovak Communist party in the late 1950s, and first
 secretary of the Czech Communist party in January
 1968. He initiated the 
PRAGUE SPRING, a series of
 democratic reforms that were not to be seen again
 in the Soviet-bloc countries until the 
GORBACHEV
 era. After the 
SOVIET INVASION OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA
 in August he stayed on as party first secretary but
 with no real power; he was replaced by Gustav
 
HUSAK in 1969 and was expelled from his party in
 1970. In November 1989, he reemerged as one of the
 leaders of a newly democratic Czechoslovakia. On
 December 28, 1989, Dubcek was unanimously elected
 chairman of the Czech parliament.

Dubinsky, David (1892-1982), U.S. garment worker,
 who became an officer and in 1932 president of the
 International Ladies Garment Workers Union (ILGWU).
 He was a key labor member of Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT'S NEW DEAL coalition in the 1930s; a
 socialist and anti-Communist, he was also in the
 1930s a key initiator of New York's Liberal party
 after a split in the earlier American Labor Party,
 and in the 1950s he was a founder of 
AMERICANS FOR

 DEMOCRATIC ACTION (ADA).

Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt (1868-1963), U.S.
 teacher, historian, writer, and Black leader, whose
 Souls of Black Folk (1903) was a seminal work in
 the development of the Black American freedom
 movement in the 20th century and whose life and
 work made him one of the foremost Black leaders of
 the 20th century. He founded the 
NIAGARA MOVEMENT
 in 1905 and went with it into the 
NATIONAL

 ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE
 (NAACP) in 1909, becoming editor of the NAACP's
 journal, The Crisis. He simultaneously became
 internationally active in the worldwide
 anti-colonial and 
PAN-AFRICAN movements of the
 time. He continued to write throughout his life,
 exerting a powerful influence on Blacks in America
 and throughout what came to be known as the 
THIRD

 WORLD.

Dubos, Rene Jules (1901-82), French-American
 bacteriologist and ecologist, working for over 40
 years at the Rockefeller Institute. In 1939 he
 became the first to seek and find naturally
 occurring 
ANTIBIOTICS in the soil. Dubos early
 became interested in the relationship of humans to
 their environment, especially how disease results
 from environmental changes, such as chemical
 pollution and 
RADIATION. His ideas on ecology and
 humanity were expressed in a series of influential
 books, notably the Pulitzer Prize-winning So Human
 an Animal (1968).

Duclos, Jacques (1896-1975), French Communist
 leader, a founder of his party in 1920 and its head
 as general secretary 1931-64. He was in the Chamber
 of Deputies 1926-40 and its vice-president 1936-39,
 during the Popular Front period. But he fled into
 hiding in 1939, refusing to support his government
 during World War II, until the German invasion of
 the Soviet Union; then he directed Communist
 
RESISTANCE forces inside France. After the war he
 was in the Chamber of Deputies 1945-58 and the
 senate 1959-75. He was an unsuccessful candidate
 for the presidency in 1969. Throughout his career
 he was an entirely orthodox Communist, supporting
 the Soviet Union in all matters, though sometimes
 uncomfortably in periods of relative
 liberalization.

Dukakis, Michael Stanley (1933- ), U.S. lawyer,
 Democratic governor of Massachusetts (1973-77,
 1983- ), who in 1988 was his party's candidate for
 the presidency, losing to George 
BUSH, in a
 campaign notable for its namecalling and "negative"
 advertising.

Dulles, John Foster (1888-1959), U.S. lawyer and
 diplomat, who became a leading international lawyer
 during the interwar period, was active in the
 formation of the 
UNITED NATIONS, and was a U.S.
 delegate to the UN 1946-50. He briefly filled an
 unexpired Senate term (1949-51) and negotiated the
 final peace treaty with Japan in 1951. As president
 Dwight D. 
EISENHOWER'S secretary of state,
 1953-59, Dulles helped to intensify the 
COLD WAR
 then in progress, favoring what he described as the
 necessary diplomatic art of taking his country to
 the "brink" of war, and developing the doctrine of
 "massive retaliation," meaning the use of atomic
 war as a legitimate instrument of national policy.


Dumbarton Oaks Conference (August-October 1944),
 meeting held at the Dumbarton Oaks estate in
 Washington, DC, at which representatives of the
 United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and
 the Republic of China planned the structure and
 main procedures of the 
UNITED NATIONS.

Dung, Van Tien (1915- ), North Vietnamese officer,
 who was a divisional commander during the siege of
 
DIEN BIEN PHU in 1954 and in 1975 commander of
 the North Vietnamese offensive against the South
 Vietnamese that ended the 
VIETNAM WAR; he later
 became North Vietnamese defense minister.

Dunkirk (May 28-June 4, 1940), the evacuation to
 Britain of Allied troops, by an improvised flotilla
 protected by the British navy and air force, after
 the lost Battle of 
FLANDERS early in World War
 II. Those evacuated included 220,000 British
 troops, much of the 
BRITISH EXPEDITIONARY FORCE
 in France; an estimated 130,000 French troops; and
 a small number of Belgian troops. The evacuation
 was greatly helped by the German failure to mount a
 strong ground attack on the remaining Allied
 beachhead as the evacuation proceeded, relying
 instead on their air force, which failed to halt or
 even seriously impede the evacuation.

Dupont Plaza fire (December 31, 1986), a fire that
 killed 97 people at the Dupont Plaza hotel, in San
 Juan, Puerto Rico. Subsequent investigation
 revealed arson by a few dissident union members
 during a labor dispute.

Dust Bowl, a portion of the south central United
 States, including parts of Oklahoma, west Texas,
 Kansas, and several other states, that suffered
 from both a long drought and the 
GREAT DEPRESSION
 during the period 1933-39. The land had been used
 for grain cultivation during the 1920s and early
 1930s but fell into disuse and was not reseeded
 during the early years of the Depression; its
 topsoil blew away when the long drought came. More
 than half of its people were forced to leave,
 becoming penniless, mostly California-bound
 migrants, the "Okies" of John Steinbeck's Grapes of
 Wrath. In the early 1940s widespread reseeding
 reclaimed the land for farming.

Duvalier, Francois "Papa Doc" (1907-71), Haitian
 dictator, a physician and public health official
 before becoming a presidential candidate. After
 winning the presidential election of 1957 he set
 out upon a path of ruthless suppression of all
 opposition. In the process he developed the 
TONTON

 MACOUTES, a terrorist secret police. He had
 himself declared president-for-life in 1964 and
 arranged a dynastic succession-his son, Jean-Claude
 ("Baby Doc"), succeeding him as president-an
 arrangement that lasted until Jean-Claude fled the
 country in February 1986 during the 
HAITIAN

 REVOLUTION.

Dzerzhinsky, Felix Edmundovich (1877-1926), Polish
 Social Democrat who became a 
BOLSHEVIK. He
 organized the Soviet secret police after the
 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, and as head of the 
CHEKA,
 the 
OGPU, and the 
NKVD, was responsible for all
 national security matters.

Eagleton, Thomas Francis (1929- ), U.S. lawyer,
 Missouri attorney-general 1961-65, Democratic
 lieutenant governor 1965-68, and U.S. senator from
 1968. In 1972 he was the Democratic nominee for the
 vice-presidency on the McGovern ticket but was
 asked to withdraw, and did, after disclosure of
 earlier nervous exhaustion problems, which had on
 two occasions been treated with electric 
SHOCK

 THERAPY. McGovern's indecision on the matter,
 first supporting and then rejecting Eagleton,
 seriously harmed his presidential campaign.

Eanes, Antonio Ramalho (1935- ), Portuguese officer
 and socialist, who led antiguerrilla units in
 Guinea, Mozambique, and Angola before joining the
 
PORTUGUESE ARMED FORCES MOVEMENT in toppling the
 Portuguese dictatorship in 1974. In 1975 he played
 a key role in defeating a left-wing coup attempt,
 then became army chief of staff. He was president
 of Portugual from 1976 to 1986.

Earhart, Amelia Mary (1897-1937), U.S. aviator, who
 set several early solo flight records and was the
 leading woman flier of her time. On July 2, 1937,
 while over the central Pacific in the course of a
 round-the-world flight, she reported trouble. Radio
 contact was then lost, and she and her co-pilot,
 Fred Noonan, were not heard from again.
 Considerable speculation then developed as to
 whether she might have been shot down by the
 Japanese in the course of a reconnaissance flight,
 but no data was ever brought forward.

Earle, Willie (1922-47), Black accused of murder
 and lynched in Pickens County, South Carolina, in
 1947. Although 26 mob members admitted
 participation in the lynching and were prosecuted,
 all were acquitted.

Early Bird (Intelsat 1), first communications
 
SATELLITE for commercial purposes, launched on
 April 6, 1965, as part of the 
INTELSAT system.

East African campaign (January-April 1941), series
 of World War II engagements in East Africa. In late
 January 1941 British troops moving out of Kenya and
 the Sudan attacked substantially more numerous
 Italian troops in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and
 Somaliland. By late March the British had taken
 Somaliland, and in April they had taken Addis
 Ababa, in the process capturing an estimated 50,000
 Italian prisoners with less than 500 casualties. On
 May 18 the remnants of the Italian army in Eritrea
 surrendered.

Easter offensive (March 1972), a substantial but
 ultimately failed North Vietnamese offensive during
 the 
VIETNAM WAR, in which South Vietnamese
 forces, supported by U.S. air power, repelled the
 North Vietnamese with heavy losses.

Easter Rising (April 24-29, 1916), an armed
 insurrection against British rule, in Dublin,
 Ireland, in which 1,500-2,000 lightly armed rebels
 engaged approximately 5,000 British regulars
 equipped with artillery. The rebels, led by Patrick
 
PEARSE of the 
IRISH VOLUNTEERS and James
 
CONNOLLY of the 
IRISH CITIZEN ARMY, surrendered
 after taking and holding a few buildings in Dublin
 for several days; they had failed to take their
 main objective, Dublin Castle. The rising was
 limited to Dublin; hoped-for German arms had not
 materialized. Roger 
CASEMENT, who had tried to
 secure the German arms, was arrested on embarkation
 from a German submarine 3 days before the Rising
 and was sent to to London, where he was later
 executed for treason. Fifteen leaders of the
 Rising, including Pearse and Connolly, were
 executed in Dublin. But their executions made them
 martyrs, and the Irish Republican political arm,
 
SINN FEIN, won the elections of 1918 and declared
 the independence of the Irish Republic on January
 21, 1919, beginning the successful armed
 insurrection that was 
IRISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.


East Indies, Battle of the (January-March 1942),
 taking of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) by
 Japanese invasion fleets early in World War II. The
 only serious Dutch resistance occurred on Java in
 late March and early February, but outnumbered
 Dutch troops without air support soon surrendered
 to much stronger Japanese forces.

Eastland sinking (June 24, 1915), the sinking of
 the American Great Lakes excursion ship Eastland
 while still at its Chicago dock and full of
 passengers, with a loss of over 800 people.

East Pakistan, the mostly Moslem eastern region of
 Bengal, from 1947 part of 
PAKISTAN, and from 1971
 independent as 
BANGLADESH.

Eaton, Cyrus Stephen (1883-1979), Canadian-American
 financier and industrialist, who founded the
 Republic Steel Corporation in 1930 and during the
 post-World War II period became a leading advocate
 of nuclear disarmament and reduced Soviet-U.S.
 tensions. In 1957 he organized and sponsored the
 annual Pugwash Conference, which brought together
 leading intellectuals from both sides in the 
COLD

 WAR, in a continuing attempt to find areas of
 agreement and possible cooperation.

Eban, Abba (Aubrey Solomon; 1915- ), South
 African-Israeli diplomat, who was Israeli 
UNITED

 NATIONS representative 1949-59 and ambassador to
 the United States 1950-59, holding Israeli
 cabinet-level positions 1959-74. He was foreign
 minister 1966-74 during the 
SIX-DAY WAR (THIRD

 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR) of 1967 and the 
YOM KIPPUR WAR

 (FOURTH ARAB-ISRAELI WAR; OCTOBER WAR) of 1973.

Ebert, Friedrich (1871-1925), German socialist, who
 became leader of the German Social Democratic Party
 in 1913, supported the German government during
 World War I, and formed a government after the
 abdication of Emperor Wilhelm II during the 
GERMAN

 REVOLUTION of 1918. He cooperated with the German
 general staff during that revolution, setting up
 the right-wing 
FREIKORPS, which unsuccessfully
 attempted to take power in the 
KAPP PUTSCH of
 1920. Ebert became first president of the 
WEIMAR

 REPUBLIC.

Ebro, Battle of the (July-August 1938), the most
 decisive battle of the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR, in
 which the Republican army of the north repulsed a
 Nationalist offensive aimed at Barcelona, but then
 went on the offensive, suffered major losses, and
 was fatally weakened. The next Nationalist
 offensive, in December and January, took Barcelona.


EC, the initials of the multinational 
EUROPEAN

 COMMUNITY.

Echo, world's first communications satellite,
 launched in August 1960.

ECSC, the initials of the 
EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL

 COMMUNITY, which was the earliest part of what
 later became the 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY.

ECT, popular shorthand for electroconvulsive
 therapy, a type of 
SHOCK TREATMENT, developed in
 Italy in 1937.

Eddington, Arthur Stanley (1882-1944), British
 astrophysicist, who in 1924 discovered that the
 luminosity of a star is directly related to its
 mass, work basic to the theory of 
STELLAR

 EVOLUTION. He also discovered that stars are
 gaseous, with their energy traveling to the surface
 not by convection but by radiation, and he helped
 to confirm Albert 
EINSTEIN'S theory of
 
RELATIVITY with observations at a 1919 total
 solar eclipse, doing later work aimed at developing
 a 
UNIFIED FIELD THEORY.

Eden, Sir Anthony (1897-1977), British diplomat,
 who was three times foreign secretary (1935-38;
 1941-45; 1951-54), and prime minister 1955-57. He
 was a Conservative 
MP from 1923 and in 1926 began
 his long career in foreign affairs as a
 parliamentary secretary in the foreign office. In
 the early 1930s he strongly supported the 
LEAGUE

 OF NATIONS, and as foreign secretary he opposed
 Neville 
CHAMBERLAIN'S APPEASEMENT policies,
 resigning on that issue in February 1938. He went
 back into the government when war came in September
 1939 and was 
WINSTON CHURCHILL'S wartime foreign
 secretary from December 1940 to July 1945. He came
 back as foreign secretary with Churchill in 1951
 and became prime minister on Churchill's retirement
 in 1955. He fell from power after what was widely
 regarded in Britain as his mishandling of the 
SUEZ

 CRISIS of 1956, then retiring to write his
 memoirs.

Edward VII (Albert Edward, 1841-1910), son of
 Victoria and Albert, who gave his name to the
 Edwardian era and was king of Great Britain and
 Ireland, 1901-10. As the Prince of Wales he led an
 almost wholly social life-his mother blocked his
 participation in affairs of state-and figured in
 some of the society scandals of his time. As king
 he had very little impact on the course of events
 in Europe, though he supported Britain's naval
 buildup and the formation of the alliances with
 France and Russia that Britain would take into
 World War I.

Edward VIII (Edward Albert Christian George Andrew
 Patrick David, 1894-1972), British king in January
 1936 after the death of his father, 
GEORGE V.
 Before that he had been a rather socially conscious
 prince of Wales, although his main functions had
 been largely ceremonial. In November 1936 he
 informed Prime Minister Stanley 
BALDWIN of his
 desire to marry American divorcee Wallis 
SIMPSON,
 setting off the 
ABDICATION CRISIS, which resulted
 in his relinquishing the throne in December. His
 brother, 
GEORGE VI, who succeeded him, then named
 him duke of Windsor, and it was as the duke and
 duchess of Windsor that he and wife spent the rest
 of their lives.

Edwards Air Force Base, California site often used
 by the 
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE

 ADMINISTRATION (NASA) as a landing site for the
 
SPACE SHUTTLE.

EEC, the initials of the multinational 
EUROPEAN

 ECONOMIC COMMUNITY, which is part of the 
EUROPEAN

 COMMUNITY.

EEOC, the initials of the 
EQUAL EMPLOYMENT

 OPPORTUNITY COMMISSION, a U.S. federal agency
 concerned with the elimination of discrimination in
 the workplace.

E = mc²,  Albert 
EINSTEIN'S famous statement of
 the interconvertibility of mass and energy,
 specifically that energy equals mass times the
 speed of light squared; it was first expounded as
 part of his 1905 special theory of 
RELATIVITY.

EFTA, the initials of the multinational 
EUROPEAN

 FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION.

Egypt (Arab Republic of Egypt), a British
 protectorate until establishment of the republic in
 1952, though it formally became independent in
 1922. Under the leadership of Gamal Abdel 
NASSER,
 Egypt became an Arab socialist state, ultimately
 breaking all ties with Great Britain after British
 withdrawal from the canal area during the 
SUEZ

 CRISIS of 1956. During the brief 1958-61 formal
 union with Syria, Egypt-Syria was renamed the
 United Arab Republic, taking its present name in
 1971.

Egyptian Revolution (June 23, 1952), an officers'
 coup, led by Colonel Gamal Abdel 
NASSER, which
 overthrew the Egyptian monarchy, dethroned 
FAROUK

 I, who went into exile, and established the
 Egyptian republic. The first premier of the new
 republic was General Mohammed Naguib, who was
 succeeded by Nasser in 1954.

Ehrlich, Paul (1854-1915), German bacteriologist
 who, after widely productive work in finding serums
 to treat a variety of diseases (for which he shared
 the 1908 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine),
 developed in 1910 an arsenic treatment for the
 dreaded 
SYPHILIS, a medicine soon dubbed the
 "magic bullet."

Ehrlichmann, John Daniel (1925- ), U.S. lawyer, and
 a campaign aide to Richard M. 
NIXON during the
 1960s who became chief domestic political adviser
 to President Nixon in 1969. In 1970-71 he was
 heavily involved in the 
PENTAGON PAPERS and
 
WATERGATE scandals. He resigned from his White
 House post on April 30, 1973, and in 1974 was
 convicted on charges connected with both sets of
 scandals. Subsequently imprisoned for 18 months, he
 wrote political novels before and after his
 imprisonment.

Eichmann, Adolf (1906-62), German SS official
 instrumental in capturing Jews and sending them to
 Nazi 
CONCENTRATION CAMPS. He escaped to South
 America after the war, was captured in Buenos Aires
 by Israeli agents in 1960, and was tried and hanged
 in Israel on May 31, 1962.

Eighteenth Amendment (1919), the amendment to the
 U.S. Constitution that brought about 
PROHIBITION.


Einstein, Albert (1879-1955), German-Swiss-American
 physicist, who developed the revolutionary concept
 of 
RELATIVITY. An indifferent student, excellent
 only in mathematics, Einstein was an astonishingly
 original theoretician. In 1905, the year he earned
 his Ph.D. and while still working at the Swiss
 Patent Office, he made three major contributions to
 physics. First, he explained the 
PHOTOELECTRIC

 EFFECT, in the process incorporating Max
 
PLANCK's previously little-regarded ideas of
 
QUANTUM THEORY; this effect is central to, among
 other things, 
TELEVISION and 
RADAR. Second, he
 provided a mathematical explanation of Brownian
 motion, long-observed movement of particles
 suspended in water, making clear for the first time
 that it was the result of molecules striking each
 other randomly. Third, and most important, he
 posited a new view of the universe, one in which
 all motion was viewed as relative to a particular
 frame of reference, the idea popularly known as
 
RELATIVITY. In this paper, called the Special
 Theory of Relativity because it dealt only with
 certain types of motion, Einstein worked out his
 famous equation stating the interconvertibility of
 mass and energy, E = mc, specifically that energy
 equals mass times the speed of light squared, an
 idea soon supported by experiment. Another result
 of Einstein's theory was that the distinction
 between space and time disappeared, both existing
 on a single 
SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM. Few immediately
 recognized the power of these ideas, but in 1913
 Max 
PLANCK found Einstein a scientific position
 in Berlin, where 2 years later he published a wider
 version of his theory, popularly called the General
 Theory of Relativity. In it he pointed out some
 ways in which the theory could be tested: by
 looking for a 
RED SHIFT in star light, found in
 1920, and by looking for bending of light by a
 gravitational field, observed during a 1919 solar
 eclipse. His work earned him the 1921 Nobel Prize
 for Physics. By then famous, Einstein left Germany
 after Hitler's rise, in 1933, taking up residence
 at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton,
 New Jersey, where he vainly sought to develop a
 
UNIFIED FIELD THEORY combining both gravitation
 and electromagnetic phenomena. Understanding the
 implications of 
NUCLEAR FISSION and the dangers
 of Hitler's developing the technology first,
 Einstein sent a letter (drafted by Leo 
SZILARD)
 to President Franklin 
ROOSEVELT urging the
 funding of a project to develop an 
ATOMIC BOMB.
 The result was the 
MANHATTAN PROJECT and
 ultimately 
HIROSHIMA and 
NAGASAKI, which led
 him after war's end to press for banning of nuclear
 arms.

Eisenhower, Dwight David (1890-1969), U.S. Army
 officer, who became Supreme Commander of Allied
 forces in Europe during World War II and 34th
 president of the United States (1953-61). A colonel
 at the outbreak of war in 1941, he came to the
 attention of army chief of staff George 
MARSHALL,
 who promoted him twice, and in June 1942 he became
 American European theater commander. He commanded
 all Allied forces in the North African landings of
 1942 and in the Sicilian and Italian invasions of
 1943, leaving the Italian campaign to take command
 of the coming 
NORMANDY invasion. He also
 commanded Allied forces in the Western European
 theater, from Normandy to the German surrender, and
 was made a five-star general during the European
 campaign. After heading occupation forces and then
 becoming army chief of staff, he resigned in 1948
 to become president of Columbia University, going
 back into the military as Allied European commander
 in 1950. He won a closely contested Republican
 nomination from Senator Robert A. 
TAFT in 1952
 and went on to defeat Democrat Adlai 
STEVENSON in
 1952 and 1956. As president he was a moderate in
 both domestic and foreign affairs. At home he
 resisted, but did not confront, further
 witchhunting by Senator Joseph 
MCCARTHY and
 others, encouraging the opposition that ultimately
 destroyed McCarthy at the 
ARMY-MCCARTHY HEARINGS
 of 1954. He resisted desegregation activity as
 well, although meeting defiance of federal law at
 Little Rock, Arkansas, by sending troops to enforce
 a court order. He also resisted federal spending,
 focusing on a balanced budget and initiating very
 little new legislation. Abroad, he was a good deal
 more active, bringing the 
KOREAN WAR to an end,
 attempting to develop arms control agreements with
 the Soviets, and refusing to join Great Britain and
 France in their seizure of the 
SUEZ Canal in
 1956, while at the same time sending Marines to
 Lebanon in 1957 and maintaining a strong
 anti-Communist posture throughout his years in
 office. Before leavng office, he publicly voiced
 strong misgivings about the development of a
 powerful 
"MILITARY-INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX" in the
 United States.

Eisenhower Doctrine, a statement of U.S. commitment
 to supply economic and military aid, including
 direct military support, to Middle Eastern
 countries faced by "overt armed aggression from any
 nation controlled by international communism." It
 was issued in January 5, 1957, signaling greater
 U.S. involvement in the Middle East after the 
SUEZ

 CRISIS of 1956, and was supported by a
 Congressional resolution in March 9, 1957.

El Alamein, Battle of (October 23-November 4,
 1942), a decisive British victory in North Africa,
 in which superior British forces led by General
 Bernard 
MONTGOMERY ultimately routed overextended
 German-Italian forces commanded by General Erwin
 
ROMMEL, which had pursued the British into Egypt
 after their spring victories at 
BIR HACHEIM and
 
TOBRUK.

electrocardiograph (ECG or EKG), device for
 measuring the electrical activity of the heart and
 detecting aberrations, developed in 1900-03 by
 Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven, for which he
 won the 1924 Nobel Prize for Physiology or
 Medicine.

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), type of 
SHOCK

 TREATMENT, developed in Italy in 1937.

electroencephalograph (EEG), device for measuring
 the electrical activity of the brain and detecting
 aberrations, developed 1924-29 by German
 psychiatrist Hans Berger. Using his machine, Berger
 and others discovered that the brain has several
 different types of waves: alpha waves, associated
 with dream-sleep or relaxation; beta waves of
 higher frequency and lower voltage, associated with
 wakeful alertness and physiological stress; and
 delta waves of higher voltage and lower frequency,
 associated with deep sleep and also with some
 problems, such as strokes or tumors. Modern
 
BIOFEEDBACK techniques help people deliberately
 modify their brain waves, allowing some control in
 mild cases of epilepsy. Absence of electrical
 activity in the brain is called 
BRAIN DEATH.

electron, negatively charged 
PARTICLE circling
 the 
NUCLEUS in an atom. Though named, described,
 and discovered by Joseph 
THOMSON in 1895, the
 electron's properties were elucidated and exploited
 in the 20th century. In the 1920s various
 scientists learned how to measure an electron's
 charge; Ernest 
RUTHERFORD, Niels 
BOHR, and
 others described its place in 
ATOMIC STRUCTURE;
 Wolfgang 
PAULI found that only one electron can
 occupy a single, specific state; and Louis 
DE

 BROGLIE found that electrons sometimes acted like
 waves as well as particles. Meanwhile, others put
 the electron's properties to practical use, most
 notably, from 1904, developing the 
ELECTRON TUBE,
 which formed the basis for the whole 20th-century
 explosion in 
ELECTRONICS, and employing the
 
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT in later developing
 
TELEVISION and 
RADAR.

electronic banking, transfer of funds using
 
COMPUTER ELECTRONICS, rather than physical
 transfer of paper checks; for some, the beginning
 of a checkless society. Automation of check
 clearing among major banks was pioneered in Britain
 in 1968, beginning in New York City 2 years later;
 an international automated check-clearing system,
 centered in Europe, was begun in 1977. On the
 personal level, electronic banking has meant the
 proliferation of automated teller machines
 (ATMs)-not only in banks but also in supermarkets,
 airports, and other high-traffic places around the
 world-from which, on presentation of a valid
 
CREDIT CARD and a personal identification number
 
(PIN), a person can obtain cash from specified
 accounts. Individuals can also link their home
 computers with some banks, doing all their banking
 over telephone lines.

electronics, branch of applied physics dealing with
 the behavior of 
ELECTRONS in a wide range of
 devices, including 
COMPUTERS, TELEVISION, and
 
RADIO; the term itself emerged in the 1920s.
 Early electronic devices relied on cumbersome,
 heat-producing 
VACUUM TUBES, but after 1948 they
 began to be replaced by 
TRANSISTORS, which form
 the basis of solid-state electronics, so-called
 because the electrons move through solid metal
 crystals, rather than through a vacuum. The age of
 microelectronics began in the 1960s as ever-smaller
 multiple transistors began to be built into
 integrated circuits on 
MICROPROCESSOR CHIPS.

electron microscope, magnifying device in which
 electron beams are focused on a screen, much as
 light is focused by a normal lens but with far
 greater magnifying power. Based on work by many
 scientists in the 1920s, the first practical
 electron microscope was developed in 1928-33 by Max
 Knoll and Ernst Ruska, but the model most widely
 adopted was made in 1937-40 by Canadian-American
 physicist James Hillier and Albert Prebus, working
 under Vladimir 
ZWORYKIN. Widely used since 1934
 in the study of bacteria, 
VIRUSES, and living
 molecules, the electron microscope was also from
 1941 used in chemistry and industry, as in
 analyzing the strength of metals. By the 1980s
 scientists were even able to photograph 
DNA
 directly using this powerful instrument.

electron tube, sealed tube in which 
ELECTRONS
 float relatively freely, either in a vacuum or in
 gas; vacuum tubes (in Britain called valves) were
 the mostly widely used, providing the working
 "guts" of 
RADIO, TELEVISION, RADAR, and
 
COMPUTERS. Drawing on some 19th-century
 observations by Thomas Edison, in 1904 British
 electrical engineer John Ambrose Fleming developed
 a diode, a tube with two electrodes-a cathode and
 an anode-able to detect signals from
 electromagnetic 
RADIATION, such as 
RADIO WAVES.
 In 1907 American electrical engineer Lee 
DE

 FOREST added a mesh grid to control the movement
 of electrons, making a three-element electron tube,
 or triode, which he called an audion; this allowed
 for generation, detection, and amplification of
 electrical signals. Many vacuum tubes are
 photoelectric-tubes, converting light signals to
 electrical impulses, or vice versa; perhaps the
 best known is the 
CATHODE-RAY TUBE. Other vacuum
 tubes store electrical signals, creating an image
 of electrical charges on a screen; these are the
 basic units of electronic memory, used in radar and
 in early computers until replaced by 
TRANSISTORS
 beginning in the 1950s.

Elixir Sulfanilamide, drug that killed at least 73
 people in the United States in 1937, sparking
 passage of the 1938 federal Food, Drug, and
 Cosmetic Act that set up the 
FOOD AND DRUG

 ADMINISTRATION (FDA).

Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary, 1926- ),
 queen of the United Kingdom from 1952, head of the
 
COMMONWEALTH, married to Philip Mountbatten and
 mother of Prince Charles (1948- ), Princess Anne
 (1956- ), Prince Andrew (1960- ), and Prince Edward
 (1964- ), a highly visible symbol of the continuing
 Commonwealth relationships among the
 now-independent nations of the former British
 empire.

Ellis Island, the main U.S. immigration station
 during the first quarter of the 20th century, in
 upper New York harbor, also known the world over in
 its time as the "Island of Tears." Through the
 Great Hall at Ellis Island passed over 10 million
 immigrants, most of them from southern and eastern
 Europe, in some periods at the rate of 10,000 a
 day. Immigration was heavy from 1900 to 1914,
 slowed to a trickle during World War I, and became
 heavy again from 1919 until the advent of the
 sharply restrictive American immigration laws of
 the early 1920s. During the post-World War I 
RED

 SCARE, it was used as a detention center, holding,
 among others, anarchists Emma 
GOLDMAN and
 Alexander 
BERKMAN, before they were deported to
 the Soviet Union. During World War II, it was again
 used as a detention center. The Ellis Island
 immigration station was completed in 1892, burned
 to the ground the day after its opening, and was
 then completely rebuilt, reopening in December
 1900. Originally a 3-acre facility, built on little
 more than a sandbar, by the 1920s it was a large
 set of buildings built on 27 acres of landfill,
 complete with two hospitals, dormitories, a power
 plant, and other structures. In 1954 the entire
 station was abandoned but has since been restored,
 and is now an American national shrine.

Ellis, Henry Havelock (1859-1939), British
 physician, whose seven-volume Studies in the
 Psychology of Sex (1897-1928) opened discussion of
 a previously forbidden subject. Though for years
 judicially branded a "filthy publication,"
 available only to physicians, Ellis's work had
 considerable effect on the growth of sex education
 and 
BIRTH CONTROL in the 20th century.

Ellsberg, Daniel (1931- ), U.S. military advisor
 with top secret clearance, who became an
 anti-
VIETNAM WAR activist and took the top secret
 
PENTAGON PAPERS to the New York Times, which
 published them beginning in June 1969, a June 30
 Supreme Court decision upholding the newspaper's
 right to publish. Ellsberg was prosecuted, but
 proof of government wiretapping and burglary caused
 withdrawal of all charges after mistrials had been
 declared.

Ellsworth, Lincoln (1880-1951), U.S. explorer and
 engineer, who was one of the first people to fly
 over both the 
NORTH and 
SOUTH POLES, the former
 with Roald 
AMUNDSEN and Umberto 
NOBILE in a
 dirigible in 1926, the latter with Herbert
 Hollick-Kenyon in 1935. From a wealthy family,
 Ellsworth funded and led many other expeditions,
 notably to the Peruvian Andes and to the North Pole
 region by submarine in 1931. He was the first to
 fly over vast regions of 
ANTARCTICA 1933-39; a
 large area of Antartica was named for him.

El Nino (1982-83), periodic shift in the winds and
 ocean currents in the Pacific Ocean that had
 devastating effects from late 1982 to late 1983,
 the worst such occurrence in the century, possibly
 intensified by the early 1982 eruption of a Mexican
 volcano, El Chicon. As normal east-west winds
 dropped, warm Pacific water pushed up against South
 America's western coast, killing much of the marine
 life used to cooler waters and thereby starving
 many larger animals in the food chain. Torrential
 rains brought floods and mudslides to South America
 and parts of North America; meanwhile terrible
 droughts struck Australia, the Philippines, and
 parts of India and Africa.

El Salvador Civil War (1979- ), a guerrilla
 insurgency that during the 1980s grew to control
 much of the countryside, with the guerrillas
 receiving some military supplies from Nicaragua and
 the Salvador army receiving massive military
 assistance from the United States.  The moderate
 Salvador government, led by Jose Napoleon 
DUARTE

 and strongly supported by the United States, was
 unable to contain either the rebels or the
 army-sponsored 
DEATH SQUADS that from the
 mid-1970s attempted to suppress opposition by means
 of wholesale murder.  Early civil war death squad
 victims included Catholic Archbishop Oscar Arnulfo
 Romero and seven Americans, three of them nuns.
 Later victims included 6 Jesuit priests, murdered
 by a uniformed death squad in November, 1989.

Emergency Farm Mortgage Act, a U.S. 
NEW DEAL law
 enacted during the first 
HUNDRED DAYS of the
 
ROOSEVELT administration, providing for massive
 refinancing for farm mortgages, which saved large
 numbers of family farms and helped stabilize the
 farm-related operations of the financial
 industries.

Empire State bomber crash (July 28, 1945), crash of
 a B-25 bomber into the Empire State Building, in
 New York City, killing 13 people, setting six
 floors of the building on fire, and showering the
 surrounding streets with airplane fragments.
 Casualties were light because it was a Saturday
 morning; on a workday a major disaster would have
 resulted.

Empress of Ireland sinking (May 29, 1914), sinking
 of the Canadian Pacific liner 
EMPRESS OF IRELAND

 in the St. Lawrence River after it collided with a
 Norwegian coalship; 1,024 people died.

energy crisis, the oil shortage that occurred in
 many industrial countries during the period October
 1973-March 1974, resulting from the 
OIL EMBARGO
 imposed by the 
ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING

 COUNTRIES (OPEC), after Israeli victory in the
 1973 
YOM KIPPUR WAR (FOURTH ARAB-ISRAELI WAR),
 and until disengagement of the combatants had been
 negotiated.

Energy Research and Development Administration
 (ERDA), U.S. agency designed, with the Nuclear
 Regulatory Commission (NRC), to replace the 
ATOMIC

 ENERGY COMMISSION (AEC) from 1975.

Engel v. Vitale (1962), a landmark U.S. Supreme
 Court decision invalidating a compulsory New York
 school prayer as a violation of religious freedom.


ENIAC (
Electronic 
Numerical 
Integrator 
And
 
Calculator), long regarded as the first fully
 electronic 
DIGITAL COMPUTER until recognition of
 the earlier 
ATANASOFF-BERRY COMPUTER (ABC). The
 
ENIAC was unveiled in 1946 by John William
 Mauchly and John Presper Eckert at the University
 of Pennsylvania. Construction had begun in 1942, at
 the request of the Department of War, for
 calculation of ballistics data. Though 80 X 8 X 3
 feet and employing 18,000 vacuum-style 
ELECTRON

 TUBES, the machine had far less capacity than a
 
PERSONAL COMPUTER of the 1980s and had to be
 rewired for each new task. As part of a later
 patent suit brought by 
ENIAC licensees, a federal
 judge in 1973 ruled that 
ENIAC's patent was
 invalid, much of its substance deriving from the
 work of John V. 
ATANASOFF. Mauchly and Eckert
 later built UNIVAC, the first commercially
 available computer, in 1951.

Enigma, German radio code transmitter during World
 War II. It was secretly reproduced by the Allies
 and its codes broken early in the war, notably
 through the work of Alan 
TURING, supplying the
 Allies with the 
ULTRA information that was so
 important throughout the war.

Eniwetok, depopulated Pacific atoll in the Marshall
 Islands, site of the first successful test of a
 
HYDROGEN BOMB, on November 1, 1952, and of other
 U.S. atomic tests from 1948 to 1956.

Eniwetok, Battle of (February 17-21, 1944), a
 short, very sharp World War II battle for Eniwetok
 and Parry Island, in which the 2,000 Japanese
 defenders chose to fight to the death and were
 destroyed by much stronger U.S. forces; American
 casualties included a few hundred dead.

Enola Gay, the name of the U.S. B-29 bomber that
 dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, on
 August 6, 1945.

Enosis (Union with Greece), the goal of the Greek
 Cypriot majority, led by Archbishop 
MAKARIOS III
 from 1950. It was formally dropped on achievement
 of the independence of Cyprus in 1959 but has
 remained the goal of many Greek Cypriots.

Entebbe rescue (July 4, 1976), the successful
 effort to release 98 hostages taken by terrorists
 in an Air France hijacking on June 27, 1976. The
 hijackers had flown to Libya and then to Entebbe,
 Uganda, where they were welcomed by Idi 
AMIN.
 There they separated out and held 98 Jewish
 passengers. The Israeli government began
 negotiations with the hijackers through Amin but
 then mounted a surprise rescue operation; airborne
 Israeli commandos took the hostages back by force
 at the Entebbe airport, and flew them out, with the
 loss of three lives.

Entente Cordiale, the Anglo-French agreement of
 April 8, 1904, settling British and French spheres
 of influence in Egypt and Morocco and several other
 colonial disputes between the two countries; part
 of the settling of the European powers into the two
 rival systems that ultimately went into World War
 I.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), U.S. federal
 agency created by the National Environmental
 Protection Act of 1970, and responsible for
 administering the web of environmental safeguards
 set up by that law and subsequent laws aimed at
 protecting the environment.

Eoanthropus dawsoni, scientific name for Piltdown
 Man, early human-like fossil remains found in
 1911-12, but proved fraudulent in the 1950s.

Epinephrine, alternate name for adrenaline.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), a
 U.S. federal agency created by the 
CIVIL RIGHTS

 ACT OF 1964 to monitor and encourage compliance
 with legal prohibition of discrimination by
 employers and unions. The agency has no enforcement
 powers of its own but can bring suit in federal
 court in an attempt to force compliance.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), a proposed amendment
 to the U.S. Constitution, pushed through Congress
 in its modern form by the 
NATIONAL ORGANIZATION

 FOR WOMEN (NOW) and other interested groups in
 1971 and 1972; but it did not secure ratification
 by a sufficient number of states. It read:
 "Equality of rights under the law shall not be
 denied or abridged by the United States or by any
 state on account of sex."

equal-time provision, requirement by the 
FEDERAL

 COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION (FCC) that a U.S. radio
 or television station must grant the same amount of
 air time to all political candidates in an election
 if any one is allowed time.

Equatorial Guinea (Republic of Equatorial Guinea),
 until 1968 a Spanish colony, although it was
 granted internal autonomy in 1964. Independence
 came on October 12, 1968; with it came the
 presidency of Francisco Macias (later known as
 Macie Nguema Biyuogo Negue Ndong), who took
 absolute power in 1969, murderously repressed all
 opposition, and had himself declared
 president-for-life in 1972. He was deposed in 1979
 and later executed. Although the country remained a
 one-party state, the new government, led by Macie's
 nephew, Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, was far more
 moderate than the one it replaced.

Equity Funding fraud, a U.S. 1973 financial scandal
 in which key executives of the Equity Funding
 Corporation, an insurance and other financial
 services company, were shown to have created
 billions of dollars worth of false insurance
 policies in the preceding 4 years and then sold the
 false policies to reinsurance companies. The
 scandal bankrupted the company, cost the
 reinsurance companies $1.75 billion, and made
 billions of dollars worth of company stock nearly
 worthless.

ERA, the initials of the proposed 
EQUAL RIGHTS

 AMENDMENT.

Erikson, Erik Homburger (1902- ), German-born
 Danish-American psychoanalyst, who introduced the
 idea of an "identity crisis." Trained and analyzed
 in Vienna by Anna Freud, and with experience in
 
MONTESSORI teaching, Erikson emigrated to the
 United States in 1933, working as a child
 psychoanalyst. Building on Sigmund Freud's
 theories, he drew on cross-cultural studies among
 Native American cultures to develop a view of
 various stages of life development, each containing
 a crisis to be resolved, as outlined in several
 books, notably Childhood and Society (1950).

Eritrea, disputed East African region, annexed by
 
HAILE SELASSIE I with United Nations support, and
 later the focus of the 
ETHIOPIAN-ERITREAN WAR.

Erlander, Tage (1901-85), Swedish Social Democratic
 party leader, in parliament from 1932 and premier
 1946-69, a period in which he played a major role
 in developing the modern Swedish welfare state,
 while maintaining Sweden's traditional nonaligned
 position in international affairs.

Ervin, Samuel James, Jr. (1896-1985), U.S. lawyer
 and a North Carolina judge before becoming a
 Democratic U.S. senator 1954-75. In 1973-74, he was
 Senate head of the 
WATERGATE committee, in that
 position successfully resisting the executive
 privilege claims of president Richard M. 
NIXON
 and playing a major role in the events that led to
 the Nixon resignation.

ESM fraud, 1980's securities fraud, in which
 Florida-based 
ESM Government Securities defrauded
 institutional customers all over the United States,
 including many banks and municipalities, promising
 high returns that were in reality paid out of new
 incoming investment purchases. When the fraud was
 exposed in 1985, hundreds of millions of dollars of
 government securities supposedly held by 
ESM for
 customers were missing and probably nonexistent.
 The fraud caused a run on those Ohio savings and
 loan associations that were not federally insured,
 many of them ESM customers who had suffered huge
 losses, providing final evidence to Americans that
 the only reasonably safe government financial
 guarantee at the time was the federal guarantee.

ESP, popular shorthand for 
EXTRASENSORY

 PERCEPTION, a term coined by Joseph 
RHINE.

Estes, Billy Sol (1925- ), swindler, prominent
 Texas citizen, and supporter of president Lyndon
 
JOHNSON; in 1966 he was convicted of selling
 interests in nonexistent fertilizer tanks and again
 in 1979 for using nonexistent collateral to borrow
 money.

Estonia, from 1721, a Russian Baltic province,
 which won its freedom in the 
ESTONIAN WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE (1918), but was reoccupied by the
 Soviet Union in 1940, as provided in the
 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT. During the 
GORBACHEV era,
 powerful independence movements arose in all three
 Baltic Soviet Republics; in early 1990, the issues
 had not yet been resolved.

Estonian War of Independence (1918), conflict that
 developed as part of the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR. After
 the armistice of November 11, 1918, German troops
 withdrew from Estonia, which had declared its
 independence after the Treaty of 
BREST-LITOVSK in
 1917. Soviet forces entered the former Russian
 Baltic province but were repelled by Estonian
 troops aided by the British Baltic squadron.
 Independence was formally recognized by the Treaty
 of Dorpat in October 1920.

estrogen, female sex 
HORMONE first identified in
 the 1920s. Synthetic forms of estrogen and other
 hormones were used by Gregory 
PINCUS in his
 1951-55 development of a 
BIRTH CONTROL PILL,
 which interrupted a woman's monthly
 ovulation-menstruation cycle, so preventing
 conception. By 1965 researchers had discovered that
 estrogen given to women after menopause helped
 prevent the bone-weakening disease osteoporosis, as
 well as hardening of the arteries, or
 atherosclerosis.

Ethiopian-Eritrean famine of 1984-85, a famine
 accompanied by epidemic disease, resulting from
 severe drought, and complicated by long periods of
 refusal by the combatants in the
 
ETHIOPIAN-ERITREAN war to admit aid shipments; an
 estimated 1 million died.

Ethiopian-Eritrean War (1962- ), conflict that
 began in 1962, when Ethiopia abolished the autonomy
 Eritrea had been granted within its federation with
 Ethiopia, established in 1952. The result was an
 Eritrean separatist guerrilla war that by 1965 had
 grown into a long-term, major conflict in the
 region. After the overthrow of Haile 
SELASSIE in
 1974, the war grew even more intense, as the new
 Soviet-backed military government of Ethiopia made
 repeated, unsuccessful attempts to smash the long
 insurgency. Ethiopian efforts weakened during the
 
SOMALI-ETHIOPIAN WAR of 1977-78. Renewed major
 Ethiopian attacks, beginning in the summer of 1978,
 had no more success than before, the insurgents
 retreating to the countryside and later returning
 to occupy most of Eritrea. During the 1980s the
 decades-long war was a stalemate, with an estimated
 1-2 million civilian victims, most of the
 casualties resulting from drought, famine, disease,
 and in some periods the refusal of the combatants
 to allow delivery of foreign famine relief and
 medical supplies.

Ethopian-Italian War (October 1935-May 1936),
 Italian invasion of Ethiopia, without declaring
 war, in pursuit of long-cherished Italian fascist
 imperial ambitions; the Italian troops quickly
 scored easy victories over ill-equipped Ethiopian
 forces. 
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS declared Italy an
 aggressor and voted some sanctions but failed even
 to attempt to block the oil supplies that were
 vital to further Italian advances or to stop
 Italian passage through the Suez Canal. Italian
 forces paused in November, resumed their offensive
 in May, heavily bombing defenseless civilian and
 military targets and ending the war by taking Addis
 Ababa. Italy occupied Ethiopia until early 1941,
 when Allied East African forces liberated the
 country, restoring 
HAILE SELASSIE I (Ras Tafari)
 to the throne.

eugenics, planned improvement of the genetic makeup
 of the human population, drawing on breeding
 programs developed with plants and animals;
 so-called positive eugenics involves the fostering
 of desirable genes, whereas negative eugenics
 involves suppressing undesirable genes and is often
 used by racists or xenophobes for their own ends,
 sometimes to disastrous effect. Dating back at
 least to Plato, the idea of eugenics began to
 spread widely in the early 20th century, with
 pseudoscientific ideas about racial and criminal
 "types." British biologist Francis Galton, who
 coined the term "eugenics" (meaning well-born) in
 1883, sparked the founding of eugenics societies,
 as in Great Britain in 1907 and the United States
 in 1926. Eugenists believed in the superiority of
 Whites, especially those of "Nordic" background,
 over other races and of the "higher" over the
 "lower" classes, despite the lack of supporting
 scientific evidence and the patent subjectivity of
 the classifications. They also took the
 
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT derived by testing to be a
 measure of genetic heritage, rather than of
 learning from the environment. Eugenics views were
 used to restrict non-Northern European immigration
 to the United States, especially after 1924. They
 also resulted in the passage of sterilization laws
 in the mid-1930s, notably in Germany, the
 Scandinavian countries, and in over half of the
 states in the United States. Whole classes of
 people, especially those labeled as feebleminded,
 insane, criminal, or epileptic, were subject to
 voluntary or compulsory sterilization. Such laws
 were unevenly applied; in the United States most
 heavily in the South and in California, which alone
 had almost 10,000 sterilizations by 1935. Though
 such laws remained on the books for decades, often
 fed by racist attitudes, the ideas of eugenics were
 sharply questioned in the scientific community from
 the mid-1930s in both America and Europe,
 particularly by figures such as Franz 
BOAS and
 Ashley 
MONTAGU. Regardless, the Nazis took the
 ideas of eugenics to support their view of a German
 "master race," the end result being not only
 sterilization, as under the 
NUREMBERG LAWS, but
 also the deaths of millions of people, especially
 in the 
JEWISH HOLOCAUST. Revulsion against the
 Nazi actions discredited the eugenics movement
 after World War II. But advances in biology and
 medicine from the 1950s have, in fact, made
 "selective breeding" and genetic counseling of
 humans relatively widespread-the key difference
 being that the individual, not the state or any
 self-appointed group, is generally making the
 choices. Using 
AMNIOCENTESIS, since 1952 parents
 have been able to learn about their fetus's genetic
 makeup, and if problems are found, they can decide
 on an abortion or medical treatment. Artificial
 insemination and 
IN VITRO FERTILIZATION are
 common approaches to infertility, with sperm
 sometimes coming from 
SPERM BANKS containing the
 semen of men regarded as "superior." And since 1973
 
GENETIC ENGINEERING has offered the prospect of
 altering human makeup deliberately or even of
 producing 
CLONES.

Euratom, an alternate name for the 
EUROPEAN ATOMIC

 ENERGY COMMUNITY.

Eurocommunism, the post-
STALIN approach taken by
 many of the leaders of the Communist parties of
 Western Europe, especially after Nikita
 
KHRUSHCHEV'S 1956 SECRET SPEECH, which called for
 the development of many different national paths
 toward socialism and communism, rather than
 unquestioning adherence to the Soviet model. During
 the 1970s Eurocommunism became the dominant
 Communist Party doctrine in Western Europe; during
 the 
GORBACHEV era, the doctrine was also adopted
 in practice by the Communist Parties of Eastern
 Europe.

European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), a
 component part of the 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY (EC),
 established in 1958, by the terms of the 1957
 Treaty of Rome. Euratom then moved to develop a
 common nuclear industries market and to foster the
 peaceful and safe uses of atomic energy; it also
 became involved in Community-wide nuclear and other
 scientific research projects.

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the
 earliest component part of the 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY

 (EC); it was established in 1952 by the terms of
 the Paris Treaty of 1951, then moved to develop a
 coal and steel common market as proposed by the
 
SCHUMAN PLAN and served as a model for the later
 
EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EEC).

European Community (EC), a supranational
 organization of 12 European nations, including
 Belgium, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of
 Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
 Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the United
 Kingdom, which since its formation as a six-nation
 organization in 1967 has grown toward a substantial
 economic union of all of the major and many of the
 smaller European states. The EC has merged the
 functions of the European Economic Community
 (
EEC, or 
COMMON MARKET), the 
EUROPEAN COAL AND

 STEEL COMMUNITY (ECSC), and the European Atomic
 Energy Community 
(EURATOM). The European
 Community has become a powerful economic and
 therefore political force, organizing and
 supervising such matters as trading and subsidy
 arrangements within its own borders and negotiating
 worldwide agreements on behalf of its members, and
 from the late 1980s moving toward a planned
 economic union of its members scheduled for 1992.
 The EC includes the European Parliament and the
 European Court of Justice.

European Economic Community (EEC), a component part
 of the 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY (EC), established in
 1958 by the terms of the 1957 Treaty of Rome. It
 established a Community-wide customs union in 1968,
 was joined by Great Britain in 1972 and thereafter
 by several smaller European nations, has developed
 worldwide trading relationships on behalf of the EC
 as a unified entity, and has continued to move
 toward a complete economic union while preserving
 the separate national sovereignties of its members.


European Free Trade Association (EFTA), an
 international organization established in 1960,
 then led by Great Britain, as a counterbalance to
 the recently formed 
EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY

 (EEC). Great Britain later joined the 
EUROPEAN

 COMMUNITY (EC), as did some other EFTA members. In
 the 1980s, EFTA and the EC formed a common free
 trading area, and developed many other areas of
 mutuality.

euthanasia, suicide or murder for the sake of
 providing an "easy death" (the word's literal
 meaning) for an individual, especially someone
 incurably ill and in great pain; an old question
 taken up with renewed force in the 20th century
 because medical technology can extend life far
 beyond previously normal bounds. Where the 
RIGHT

 TO DIE implies the ability to choose to end
 life-supporting medical assistance, euthanasia goes
 further, encompassing the individual's right to
 commit suicide or request someone else to kill them
 for their benefit. Though the official medical
 position, as stated by the World Medical
 Association in 1950, remained that euthanasia is
 unethical, some individual physicians have engaged
 in mercy killing at the request of the patient or
 family, leading to considerable debate on the
 question in the professional journals, especially
 in the 1980s, with the advent of 
AIDS. Sometimes
 family members have performed mercy killings
 themselves, posing difficult questions for juries
 considering murder charges, the decision often
 resting on consideration of the murderer's motives.


Evans, Arthur John (1851-1941), English
 archaeologist, long associated with Oxford's
 Ashmolean Museum, who from 1894-1919 led
 excavations at Crete, especially at Cnossus,
 uncovering striking finds from the Minoan and later
 Mycenean civilizations.

Everest, Mount, world's highest mountain, target of
 numerous 20th-century expeditions. The first
 mountaineers to reach the top were Edmund 
HILLARY
 and Tenzing 
NORGAY on May 29, 1953.

Evers, James Charles (1922- ), U.S. civil rights
 leader and elected official, who in 1963 left his
 business in Chicago to take up the role of his
 murdered brother, Medgar 
EVERS, becoming
 Mississippi state chairman of the 
NATIONAL

 ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE

 (NAACP). He became mayor of Fayette, Mississippi,
 in 1969, the first Black mayor of a southern
 racially mixed town since the period of
 Reconstruction following the Civil War. He was also
 a leader of the 
MISSISSIPPI FREEDOM DEMOCRATIC

 PARTY and was its gubernatorial candidate in 1972.


Evers, Medgar Wiley (1925-63), U.S. political
 leader, a Mississippi lawyer and Black civil rights
 leader, who was state chairman of the 
NATIONAL

 ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE

 (NAACP) when he was murdered at his home in
 Jackson, Mississippi, in 1963.

Evita, the popular name of Maria Eva Duarte
 
PERON, partner and prime mover in the Argentinian
 dictatorship of her husband, Juan 
PERON.

exclusion principle, theory that within an atom
 only one 
ELECTRON could occupy a specific, single
 state; developed by Wolfgang 
PAULI in 1925.

existentialism, a theory of personal freedom
 positing that life has no meaning beyond direct
 personal engagement and commitment based on
 personal experience, free of the limiting
 influences of society. It was developed in the 19th
 century by Soren Kierkegaard and others, developed
 further in the 20th century by such philosophers as
 Karl 
JASPERS and Martin Heidegger, and became a
 post-World War II artistic and social movement led
 most notably by Jean Paul 
SARTRE and Albert
 
CAMUS.

Explorer, series of U.S. satellites, including
 America's first artificial satellite, launched on
 January 31, 1958, following the Soviet Union's
 
SPUTNIK FLIGHT. 
EXPLORER 4 (boosted in part by
 a modified 
V-2 ROCKET) discovered the Van Allen
 Belts, two wide bands of radiation circling Earth,
 earlier predicted by James 
VAN ALLEN; EXPLORER 6,
 launched August 7, 1959, transmitted the first
 
TELEVISION picture of Earth from space; and later
 Explorer satellites collected and transmitted
 cosmic data from above the Earth's atmosphere.

extra-sensory perception (ESP), term coined in the
 early 20th century by Joseph 
RHINE for the
 acquisition of information without using the known
 senses. The umbrella term generally includes
 telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and often
 psychokinesis. Though subjected to substantial
 laboratory research, the existence of ESP remains,
 so far at least, unproved.

Exxon Valdez, the Exxon oil company tanker that was
 the source of a massive oil spill in Prince William
 Sound, off Alaska, on March 24, 1989. An estimated
 250,000 barrels of oil were discharged into the
 sea; it was the largest U.S. oil tanker spill to
 date, and it caused a series of related ecological
 disasters, some of them many hundreds of miles
 away.

Fabian Society, a gradualist British socialist
 educational and propaganda organization formed in
 1884 that exercised great formative and continuing
 influence on the development of the Labour party;
 its key members were Beatrice 
WEBB, Sidney
 
WEBB, and Bernard 
SHAW.

Fairbanks, Charles Warren (1852-1918), U.S. lawyer
 and conservative Republican senator from Ohio
 (1897-1905), and Theodore 
ROOSEVELT'S
 vice-president for one term (1905-09), having been
 chosen to balance the ticket. In 1916 he was
 vice-presidential candidate in the losing Charles
 Evans 
HUGHES campaign.

Fair Deal, a slogan put forward by U.S. president
 Harry S. 
TRUMAN in his 1949 annual message to
 Congress, describing his domestic program, which he
 regarded as an extension of Franklin D.
 
ROOSEVELT'S liberal 
NEW DEAL program; it
 included a broad range of labor, welfare, and civil
 rights legislation, little of which was enacted
 during his administration.

Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC), a U.S.
 Federal commission set up by executive order in
 1941, created by President Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT in response to a threat by A. Philip
 
RANDOLPH to lead a march on Washington for fair
 employment practices. The commission had some
 success during World War II, although its practical
 accomplishments were rather limited. However, it
 was the first federal government organization
 solely and directly concerned with discrimination
 in the workplace, and as such it was a trailblazer.
 During the postwar period, states began to follow
 suit, and during the 1960s many far more effective
 federal and state laws and enforcement
 organizations came into being.

Faisal (1883-1933), son of 
HUSSEIN IBN ALI and
 first king of Iraq. He commanded the Arab desert
 army during the 
ARAB REVOLT of 1916 and in
 subsequent guerrilla warfare against the Turks,
 collaborating closely with T. E. 
LAWRENCE. He
 became king of Syria in 1918 but in 1920 was
 deposed by the French, who then controlled Syria.
 In 1921, with British sponsorship, he became king
 of Iraq and in 1932 became king of an independent
 Iraq. His son and grandson ruled after him, until
 his grandson, Faisal II, was killed during the
 rebellion of 1958.

Falange, the Spanish fascist party, a mixture of
 earlier fascist and right-wing Catholic elements
 united behind Francisco 
FRANCO and, from April
 1937 until his consolidation of power after the end
 of the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR, his chief ideological
 base in Spanish life. Falange influence diminished
 after the defeat of German and Italian fascism,
 although its members continued to hold key
 positions in fascist Spain.

Falkenhayn, Erich von (1861-1922), German World War
 I general who replaced Helmuth von 
MOLTKE as head
 of the German general staff after the first German
 offensive was stopped at the Battle of the 
MARNE.
 He was replaced by General Paul von 
HINDENBURG
 after the failure of the long, costly German effort
 to take 
VERDUN.

Falkland Islands, Battle of (December 8, 1914), the
 World War I sinking of four German cruisers by
 superior British forces off the Falklands.

Falklands War (1982), British-Argentine war, which
 began on April 2, 1982, when Argentine troops
 occupied the Falklands (which they claimed as the
 Malvinas), disputed territory occupied by Britain
 since 1833. The small British garrison on the
 Falklands surrendered, but on April 5 a British
 task force set off to retake the islands. Using
 U.S. bases and assistance in the South Atlantic,
 British forces reached the Falklands and began a
 series of island-hopping invasions in late April;
 they were substantially reinforced in May and
 completed their campaign with Argentine surrender
 on June 14. British losses included a destroyer,
 the Sheffield, and three other ships; Argentine
 air, sea, and land losses were considerably
 heavier, including the loss of a cruiser, the
 General Belgrano. In the wake of the lost war, the
 Argentine government collapsed.

Falwell, Jerry (1933- ), U.S. fundamentalist
 Protestant minister and television evangelist,
 founder of the Old Time Gospel Hour, who in 1979
 founded the conservative 
MORAL MAJORITY political
 organization, becoming an influential political
 figure on the right, and strongly supporting Ronald
 
REAGAN throughout the 1980s. In 1987 he took
 control of Jim Bakker's PTL evangelistic empire at
 Bakker's request after the 
BAKKER-PTL SCANDAL
 broke. Later he relinquished control and let PTL
 drift into bankruptcy after Bakker attempted to
 regain control by accusing Falwell of holding PTL
 against Bakker's wishes.

fallout, tiny radioactive particles remaining after
 a nuclear explosion, as of an 
ATOMIC BOMB or
 
NUCLEAR REACTOR, or from natural sources, some
 remaining locally, but some transported by wind
 currents far over the Earth's surface. Fallout
 particles such as strontium 90, potassium 40,
 carbon 14, and iodine 131, gradually lose their
 
RADIOACTIVITY, but only over weeks or years;
 meanwhile, they concentrate in the environment,
 particularly affecting animals at the end of food
 chains, such as mammals and birds, and causing
 substantial health hazards. Concern over the
 effects of fallout sparked the building of fallout
 shelters, a short-lived fad of the early 1960s and
 spurred many attempts at control of nuclear
 technology, especially atmospheric testing,
 starting with the 1963 
NUCLEAR TEST BAN TREATY.


Fanfani, Amintore (1908- ), Italian author,
 historian, and economist, who entered parliament as
 a Christian Democrat in 1946, served at the cabinet
 level in many governments, was prime minister four
 times between 1954 and 1983, and was president of
 the senate twice. He was president of the United
 Nations General Assembly 1965-66.

Fanon, Franz Omar (1925-61), Martiniquan Black
 psychiatrist, writer, and Marxist revolutionary,
 who left medicine while working in Algeria, to
 become editor of the Algerian National Front
 
(FLN) newspaper during the 
ALGERIAN WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE. He subsequently became a major
 
THIRD WORLD revolutionary theoretician,
 advocating violent revolution, and relying on a
 peasant base for revolution, as put forward in his
 best known work, The Wretched of the Earth (1961).


FAO, the initials of the 
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

 ORGANIZATION, a 
UNITED NATIONS special agency.


Farley, James Aloysius (1888-1976), U.S. Democratic
 politician, who played a key role in developing the
 presidential campaigns of Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT in 1932 and 1936 and was
 postmaster-general during the first two Roosevelt
 administrations. He split with Roosevelt in 1940 on
 the issue of the third term, thereafter playing
 little part in national affairs.

Farmer, James Leonard (1920- ), U.S. pacifist and
 civil rights leader, who in the early 1940s was
 active in the 
FELLOWSHIP OF RECONCILIATION and in
 1942 founded the 
CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY

 (CORE), which in the 1960s became a major civil
 rights organization. From 1961 to 1966 he was
 national director of CORE, in a period that
 included the CORE-organized 
FREEDOM RIDES and a
 series of other demonstrations throughout the
 South.

Farmers Home Administration (FHA), U.S. federal
 agency originating in the 1930s farm relief and
 financing programs of the 
NEW DEAL; it makes
 direct loans and guarantees private loans to
 farmers and farm-related enterprises.

Farouk I (1920-65), the last Egyptian king
 (1936-52), whose country was effectively, though
 not formally, dominated by Great Britain before and
 during World War II. He was the ineffective and
 increasingly corrupt ruler of Egypt as it moved
 toward independence in the postwar period. In July
 1952 the monarchy was overthrown and a republic
 established after a coup led by General Mohammed
 Naguib and Colonel Gamal Abdul 
NASSER. Farouk
 went into exile, dying in Rome.

fascism, a system of totalitarian state control
 that used prejudice, and the short-term economic
 benefits of militarism to fan nationalism, as
 exemplified by the fascist regimes in Germany and
 Italy, which were directly responsible for the
 murder of tens of millions before and during World
 War II; the underlying basis for the 
NAZI PARTY
 and the 
FASCIST PARTY.

Fascist Party, the Italian political party formed
 by Benito 
MUSSOLINI in 1921, from 1922 until 1943
 the ruling party in that country. Its program was
 an incoherent amalgam of authoritarianism and
 social reform, relying  heavily on calls for order,
 increased employment, and anticommunism. In
 practice the party was essentially a vehicle for
 the development of Mussolini's dictatorship. The
 concept and slogans of 
FASCISM were thereafter
 similarly used in Germany, Spain, Portugal,
 Austria, and to some extent in Japan and several
 other countries in Europe and South America. The
 German variety added a virulent racism that
 resulted in the death of tens of millions of
 victims.

Fatah (al-Fatah; Palestine Liberation Movement),
 Palestinian Arab organization established in 1958;
 led by Yasir 
ARAFAT, it began guerrilla
 operations against Israel in 1964. It joined and
 became the central organization of the 
PALESTINE

 LIBERATION ORGANIZATION in 1969, its leadership
 and organization paralleling that of the PLO, with
 Arafat heading both. Although several harder-line
 groups have split off as Fatah and the PLO have
 come to be perceived as moderate, it continues to
 be the most important of the organizations
 affiliated with the PLO.

FBI, the initials of the 
FEDERAL BUREAU OF

 INVESTIGATION, by which this U.S. federal agency
 is best known.

FCC, the initials of the 
FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS

 COMMISSION, a U.S. agency set up by the
 Communications Act of 1934 to regulate use of radio
 airwaves.

FDA, the initials of the 
FOOD AND DRUG

 ADMINISTRATION, set up in 1931.

FDIC, the initials of the 
FEDERAL DEPOSIT

 INSURANCE CORPORATION, the U.S. federal agency
 that insures most deposits in federally chartered
 commercial banks.

February Rebellion (Japan; February 26-28, 1936),
 the revolt in Tokyo of a group of young right-wing
 Japanese army officers leading 1,400 soldiers of
 the army's First Division, resulting in the
 assassinations of many leading government
 officials. The revolt was suppressed by army and
 navy forces, and many of the rebels were later
 executed, but it was nonetheless a major step on
 the road toward the victory of Japanese militarism
 and the onset of World War II.

February Revolution (January-March 1917), the
 insurrection that ended the Romanov dynasty in
 Russia. It began in January with a series of
 strikes, demonstrations, and army mutinies in many
 parts of Russia. The czar's government was unable
 to reestablish control, because army units sent to
 restore order either refused to leave their
 barracks or joined the revolutionaries, as did many
 soldiers returning from the front. By early
 February, 
NICHOLAS II could no longer govern; he
 resigned on March 15, and the new 
PROVISIONAL

 GOVERNMENT took over control of the country.

fedayeen, a general term for guerrilla fighters in
 the Arab world but in the long Arab-Israeli
 conflict, especially describing 
PALESTINE

 LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO) commando groups.

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), U.S. federal
 investigative agency, formally attached to the
 Department of Justice, but with a substanially
 independent life of its own. It was established in
 1908, as the Bureau of Investigation and was
 reorganized and greatly expanded during the
 directorship of J. Edgar 
HOOVER (1924-72). The
 organization became highly visible and expanded its
 operations during the 1930s, while conducting a
 well-publicized campaign against the "most wanted"
 criminals of the period; it expanded even further
 as a counterintelligence organization during World
 War II. It continued to expand as an antisubversive
 organization during the 
MCCARTHY period, then and
 thereafter engaging in massive abuses of authority,
 as revealed during the 
WATERGATE investigations
 of the early 1970s; these included harassment of a
 wide range of political dissenters, among them
 Martin Luther 
KING, Jr. and tampering with
 Watergate evidence. Such abuses were in the main
 curbed by later FBI directors, but charges of the
 harassment of dissenters have periodically
 recurred, as did charges of harassment of minority
 groups employed by the organization.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC), U.S.
 agency set up by the Communications Act of 1934 to
 regulate use of 
RADIO airwaves. Among other
 things, the FCC controlled licensing of radio and
 
TELEVISION stations, allocation of frequency
 bands for transmission, limitation on monopolistic
 networks in any one market, and types of
 commercials and programming allowed; for example,
 lotteries, fraud, and obscenity are forbidden. The
 FCC also required that stations carry a certain
 amount of public interest programming.

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), U.S.
 federal agency, established by the Federal Reserve
 Act of 1933, guaranteeing deposits in federally
 chartered commercial banks up to statutory limits,
 thereby also protecting the banking system from the
 kind of large-scale bank insolvency that occurred
 in the early years of the 
GREAT DEPRESSION. The
 FDIC is also involved in bank regulation, and in
 settling the affairs of insolvent banks at the
 lowest possible cost to the federal government; in
 the 1980s, as the American banking system suffered
 massive insolvencies, this became a substantial
 federal budget factor. Its companion organization,
 the 
FEDERAL SAVINGS AND LOAN INSURANCE CORPORATION

 (FSLIC), performs the same function for federally
 chartered savings and loan associations, and in the
 1980s was even more heavily involved in merging
 insolvent savings and loan associations and paying
 their insured depositors.

Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), a
 new deal agency created during the first 
HUNDRED

 DAYS of the 
ROOSEVELT administration, through
 which Harry 
HOPKINS quickly distributed
 approximately $500 million to the states, most of
 it used in direct relief payments to the destitute.


Federal Republic of Germany, those portions of
 Germany occupied by the Western Allies after World
 War II, popularly known as West Germany, which
 became an independent democratic state on May 23,
 1949, partially effecting the formal partition of
 Germany. Partition was formally concluded on
 October 7, 1949, with the establishment of the
 
GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC.

Federal Reserve System, the U.S. central banking
 system, established by law in 1913 and activated in
 1914. The system consists of 12 regional banks
 engaged collectively in a considerable variety of
 credit control, bank regulation, balance of trade,
 and national debt financing activities.

Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation
 (FSLIC), a U.S. federal agency that guarantees
 deposits in federally chartered savings and loan
 associations, as does the 
FEDERAL DEPOSIT

 INSURANCE CORPORATION (FDIC) for federally
 chartered commercial banks; during the 1980s,
 savings and loan insolvencies imposed a drain
 amounting to tens of billions of dollars on the
 U.S. treasury, with much more to come.

Federal Trade Commission (FTC), a U.S. federal
 regulatory agency, since 1914 charged with
 enforcing antitrust legislation and prohibiting
 practices that are in restraint of trade.
 Originally a major antitrust instrument, it became
 much less effective during the 1920s, resuming its
 antitrust course during the 
NEW DEAL era with the
 appointment of Thurman Arnold as head of the
 Antitrust Division of the FTC, a course that
 substantially continued, although shifting somewhat
 with the tenor of the times.

feedback, self-regulation by a living or machine
 system using information from previous output or
 experience, often aimed at maintaining an
 equilibrium, called 
HOMEOSTASIS. Use of the
 feedback concept in relation to machine systems
 grew from the 1930s and was clarified by Norbert
 
WIENER, who saw feedback as key to his theory of
 
CYBERNETICS. The development of sophisticated
 
ROBOTS and 
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE-both holy
 grails of modern science-depends on feedback,
 especially the ability for a machine to "learn"
 from experience and modify its workings to meet
 changing conditions. Wiener and many others also
 explored how feedback mechanisms work in living
 systems. In humans self-regulation is called
 
BIOFEEDBACK and since 1967 been developed as a
 deliberate self-control technique.

FEMININE MYSTIQUE, THE (1963), A key feminist work
 by Betty 
FRIEDAN that had powerful impact on the
 development of the modern American women's movment.


Feng Yu-hsiang (1882-1948), Chinese warlord, also
 known as the Christian General, who commanded
 substantial forces in northern China, taking Peking
 in 1924 but failing to hold it. He allied himself
 with 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK in 1927, took Peking again
 with warlord allies in 1928, broke with Chiang in
 1929, and was defeated by Chiang's 
KUOMINTANG
 armies in 1930.

FEPC, the initials of the trailblazing World War II
 U.S. federal 
FAIR EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES

 COMMISSION.

Fermi, Enrico (1901-54), Italian-American nuclear
 physicist, who achieved the first controlled
 nuclear 
CHAIN REACTION, heralding the beginning
 of the atomic age. After early work in mathematics
 and theoretical atomic physics, he experimented
 with using 
NEUTRONS to bombard elements, work for
 which he received the 1938 Nobel Prize for Physics,
 afterward fleeing from Sweden to the United States
 with his Jewish wife and children, instead of
 returning to fascist Italy. On learning that three
 German scientists in 1939 had repeated his
 experiment with 
URANIUM, producing 
NUCLEAR

 FISSION, he (and others) urged that the United
 States develop an 
ATOMIC BOMB before the Germans
 could do so. In 1942 he created the first chain
 reaction in the world's first 
NUCLEAR REACTOR in
 the then-small 
MANHATTAN PROJECT, working in a
 University of Chicago squash court. The project
 then moved to 
LOS ALAMOS, and Fermi moved with
 it. After the war he advised the 
ATOMIC ENERGY

 COMMISSION (AEC).

Fermi reactor meltdown (October 5, 1966), the
 partial meltdown of the core of the Enrico Fermi
 breeder reactor at Detroit, Michigan, causing plant
 shutdown and considerable contamination of the
 plant but without direct casualties or other
 serious consequences. It was later knowledgably
 reported to have been an extremely close call for
 Detroit and its millions of inhabitants.

Fernald environmental contamination, secret release
 of radioactive uranium waste from the Fernald
 nuclear weapons plant, near Cincinnati, Ohio, into
 the Great Miami River, into the air, and into the
 ground, via waste pits that were known to be
 leaking. In the autumn of 1988, the U.S. government
 admitted that the releases had been going on for
 decades, part of a pattern of secrecy and breakdown
 throughout the U.S. nuclear weapons production
 system.

Ferraro, Geraldine Anne (1935- ), U.S. lawyer,
 prosecutor, and New York Democratic Congresswoman
 (1979-84) who became Democratic vice presidential
 candidate on the 
MONDALE ticket in 1984 and was
 the first woman to be a major-party candidate for
 that office. She ran a strong campaign as a
 liberal, although her candidacy was somewhat
 damaged by charges of "guilt by association" with
 her husband, who was attacked for allegedly
 unethical business activities.

Feynman, Richard Phillips (1918-88), U.S.
 physicist, who in the late 1940s developed quantum
 electrodynamics to describe the behavior of
 
ELECTRONS with mathematical precision, a major
 contribution to the underpinnings of 
QUANTUM

 THEORY. For his work he shared the 1965 Nobel
 Prize for Physics with Julian S. Schwinger and
 Shinichiro Tomonaga, who worked independently.
 During World War II he worked on the 
ATOMIC BOMB
 and later, with Murray 
GELL-MANN, explored the
 possible existence of 
QUARKS. He is best-known to
 the public as a member of the commission exploring
 the 1986 Challenger disaster, for showing with a
 simple glass of ice water how the craft's O-ring
 seals could become brittle and fail.

FHA, the initials of the 
FARMERS HOME

 ADMINISTRATION, by which this federal agency has
 been best known since its formation during the
 
GREAT DEPRESSION.

fifth column, a phrase indicating subversion,
 introduced by Spanish fascist general Queipo de
 Llano during the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR. He described
 the advance on Madrid as proceeding in five
 columns-four of them military and one composed of
 sympathizers within the city itself.

Figueres Ferrer, Jose (1906- ), Costa Rican
 political leader and socialist, who in 1948 led a
 successful insurrection after a presidential
 election was stolen from Otilio Ulate Blanco; he
 served as president of the interim government until
 Blanco took office in 1949. Figueres was elected
 president twice (1953-58; 1970-74), and in that
 post he continued to develop the social welfare
 program of the socialist National Liberation party,
 which he founded in 1948 and which is also the
 party of Oscar 
ARIAS SANCHEZ.

Fiji, until 1970, a British colony; it became an
 independent state and member of the 
COMMONWEALTH
 on October 10, 1970. A period of turbulence began
 with the election of April 1987; it was generated
 by ethnic conflicts, mainly between native Fijians
 and Indian-Fijians. A more stable period began with
 the army coup of September 25, 1987. A republic was
 established on October 7, 1987. Commonwealth status
 was withdrawn on October 16, 1987.

final solution, the 
NAZI code name for the German
 plan to murder all of Europe's Jews, a plan put
 into effect during 1941 and carried on
 uninterruptedly thereafter, resulting in
 
GENOCIDE: the 
JEWISH HOLOCAUST.

Finland (Republic of Finland), until the December
 6, 1917, declaration of independence part of the
 Russian Empire. Independence was won in the
 
FINNISH CIVIL WAR of 1918, Finland becoming a
 republic on October 14, 1920.

Finland Station, a Leningrad railway station, at
 which Vladimir Illich 
LENIN arrived on April 16,
 1917, on returning from exile in Switzerland after
 a voyage across Europe under German safe conduct.


Finnish campaign of 1944 (July-September 1944),
 series of engagements following Soviet forces'
 breach of the Mannerheim Line in June 1944. By
 early September the Finns were defeated; the
 Soviet-Finnish armistice of September 4, 1944, took
 Finland out of World War II.

Finnish-Soviet War (November 1939-March 1940),
 Soviet invasion of Finland, starting on November
 30, 1939. After the successful German invasion of
 Poland in September 1939 and the subsequent
 Soviet-German partition of Poland, the Soviet Union
 demanded military bases from Finland. Finland
 refused; the invasion resulted. In heavy early
 fighting, the Finns held the Soviets on all fronts,
 inflicting large losses in the fighting at the
 
MANNERHEIM Line. In December and early January
 the Soviets lost most of two divisions in heavy
 fighting at Suomussalmi, with small Finnish losses.
 But in February 1940 a powerful new Soviet
 offensive breached the Mannerheim Line, and by
 early March the Finns had been defeated, then
 granting essentially the same bases that had been
 originally demanded by the Soviet Union.

Finnish War of Independence (1918), conflict that
 developed as part of the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR. On
 December 6, 1917, after the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION,
 the Finnish parliament declared Finland's
 independence. In January 1918, Finnish White Guard
 forces led by Baron Carl Gustav 
MANNERHEIM were
 at war with 
BOLSHEVIK and Finnish Red Guard
 forces. In April 1918 German intervention took the
 White Guard to victory; independence was formally
 recognized by the Treaty of Dorpat, in October
 1920.

fireside chats, a series of radio addresses to the
 nation by Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT during his long
 presidency, taking up those matters he considered
 of considerable importance. The first of these was
 the address of Sunday evening, March 12, 1933, in
 which he assured his listeners that the country's
 banking system was sound and asked them to leave
 their money in the banks and redeposit more when
 the banks, which had been closed by his 
BANK

 HOLIDAY order, began to reopen on March 13.

First Arab-Israeli War (May 1948-January 1949), an
 alternate name for the 
ISRAELI WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE.

First Balkan War (1912-13), the first of the two
 
BALKAN WARS, in which the nations of the Balkan
 League defeated Turkey; part of the run-up to World
 War I.

First World War (1914-18), alternate name for
 
WORLD WAR I, the major international conflict of
 the early 20th century.

Fisher, Andrew (1862-1928), Australian coal miner,
 labor leader, and socialist, who became a Labour
 member of the Queensland parliament in the 1890s
 and of the Australian parliament 1901-15. He was
 three-time prime minister (1908-09, 1910-13,
 1914-15), and in that position fostered economic
 development, social welfare, and later Australian
 participation in World War I.

Fiume Coup, an episode beginning in September 1919
 when Italian nationalists led by Gabriele
 
D'ANNUNZIO seized the Adriatic coast city of
 Fiume, then disputed by Yugoslavia and Italy.
 Italian troops attacked and expelled the
 nationalist group in December 1920. Fiume's status
 was settled for some years by the 1920 Treaty of
 
RAPALLO.

five-year plans, three Soviet interwar economic
 plans (1928-32, 1933-37, 1938-42) aimed at
 developing Soviet heavy industry and collectivizing
 Soviet agriculture, although the second put
 slightly more emphasis on consumer goods than the
 first; and the third, executed just before and
 during World War II, was in essence a wartime plan.
 The first 
FIVE-YEAR PLAN was intertwined with and
 part of the justification for the massive Stalinist
 attack on all internal opposition, and on the
 
KULAKS, who were the family farmers of the Soviet
 Union, an attack that was to cost an estimated 20
 million Soviet lives during the interwar period.

Flanders, Battle of (May 10-June 4, 1940),
 successful World War II German invasion and
 conquest of Belgium, Holland, and northern France,
 which began on May 10; by May 15, Belgium and
 Holland had both fallen, and the Germans had broken
 through near Sedan and split the Allied armies in
 the 
ARDENNES, the key action of the war in the
 west. The German army then easily drove to the sea,
 forcing Belgian surrender and the British
 evacuation from 
DUNKIRK, which was completed by
 June 4. Then the Germans turned to what were
 essentially mopping up operations in France, which
 surrendered on June 21.

Fleming, Alexander (1881-1955), Scottish
 bacteriologist who, in the course of his search for
 another antibacterial substance, accidentally
 discovered 
PENICILLIN in 1928, making a
 contribution to medicine that would save millions
 of lives; he shared the 1945 Nobel Prize for
 Physiology and Medicine.

Fletcher, Frank Jack (1885-1973), U.S. admiral, who
 saw action in Mexico and during World War I, and
 commanded task forces in the Battle of the 
CORAL

 SEA and the Battle of 
MIDWAY.

FLN (National Liberation Front), Algerian
 revolutionary organization formed in November 1954
 and the main force in the 
ALGERIAN WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE. The FLN was socialist, pan-Arab, and
 neutralist; with independence in July 1962, the FLN
 became the sole official state party of Algeria.

flower children, a popular term describing many of
 the young people of the U.S. 1960s
 
COUNTERCULTURE, whose orientation to a rural,
 communal, nonviolent, alternative set of
 life-styles appealed to some, threatened others,
 and made them highly controversial in a culture
 that celebrated and simultaneously attacked
 cultural diversity.

Floyd, Charles Arthur "Pretty Boy" (1904-34), U.S.
 midwestern murderer and bank robber of the early
 1930's who was at one time designated "Public Enemy
 Number One" by the 
FEDERAL BUREAU OF

 INVESTIGATION. He was killed by FBI agents in
 1934.

fluoridation, addition of fluorides to the water
 supply, aiming to reduce the number of dental
 cavities, first introduced in the United States in
 1945. At first a cause celebre in many communities,
 it was widely adopted, especially after 1967, when
 a 20-year study in Evanston, Illinois, showed that
 fluoridation dramatically decreased dental decay.


Flyer I, name of the Wright brothers' craft in the
 first successful 
AIRPLANE flight in 1903, later
 often called Kitty Hawk.

flying saucer, popular designation for an
 
UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECT.

Flynn, Elizabeth Gurley (1890-1964), U.S. Marxist
 revolutionary, who became an 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF

 THE WORLD (IWW) leader in 1908-09, was a founding
 member of the 
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION

 (ACLU) in 1920, became a leader of the 
COMMUNIST

 PARTY OF THE UNITED STATES in the mid-1930s, and
 was imprisoned for more than two years for being a
 Communist, 1955-57, becoming chairman of the
 Communist party in 1961. She had been expelled from
 the ACLU executive board in 1940 because she was a
 Communist and was posthumously rehabilitated by the
 ACLU in 1976.

FNLA, initials of the 
NATIONAL FRONT FOR THE

 LIBERATION OF ANGOLA, by which the organization is
 best known.

Foch, Ferdinand (1851-1929), French World War I
 general whose Ninth Army played a key role in
 throwing back the advancing German armies at the
 first Battle of the 
MARNE. In 1917 he became
 French chief of staff.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), a 
UNITED

 NATIONS special agency established in 1945 to
 foster rural economic development and improve the
 conditions of rural life throughout the world.
 Since then it has played a major role in bringing
 modern farming techniques and tools to the 
THIRD

 WORLD, providing relief to areas stricken by
 drought and other natural and man-made calamities,
 and developing a wide range of educational
 activities aimed at improving the quality of rural
 life.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA), U.S. federal
 agency charged with protecting the public health,
 in such areas as foods, drugs, and product safety.
 Set up in 1931, its operations were greatly
 expanded by the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and
 Cosmetic Act, after at least 73 people died in 1937
 from taking a drug called 
ELIXIR SULFANILAMIDE.
 That act was amended in 1962, after the
 
THALIDOMIDE tragedies of 1961, to tighten rules
 regarding testing of possible new drugs (rules
 later to come under criticism during the 
AIDS
 crisis) and in 1966 to require that patients be
 informed when they are being given an experimental
 drug.

Ford, Gerald Rudolph (1913- ), U.S. lawyer, a
 Republican Michigan congressman (1949-73) and
 minority leader of the House (1965-73), who was
 appointed to the vice presidency in 1973 after the
 resignation of Vice President Spiro 
AGNEW. He
 became the 38th president of the United States
 (1974-77) on August 9, 1974, succeeding Richard M.
 
NIXON, who had resigned to avoid impeachment
 because of his role in the 
WATERGATE scandal. He
 then appointed Nelson 
ROCKEFELLER to the
 vice-presidency, with congressional approval. On
 September 8, 1974, Ford pardoned former president
 Nixon for all possible federal offenses committed
 during Nixon's presidency. As president, and as a
 fiscally conservative Republican facing economic
 problems at home and a Democratic Congress, he
 proposed little new legislation, focusing instead
 on spending control. As the first post-Watergate
 president he initiated major changes and curbs on
 the national security agencies. Abroad, he pursued
 the 
OPENING TO CHINA begun by Richard Nixon and
 encouraged Egyptian-Israeli and other Middle
 Eastern negotiations but had little success in the
 area of U.S.-U.S.S.R. relations. He won the closely
 contested Republican presidential nomination in
 1976, defeating Ronald 
REAGAN, but lost the
 election to Democrat Jimmy 
CARTER.

Ford, Henry (1863-1947), U.S. mechanic, who became
 an innovative automobile developer and major
 industrialist, paying higher minimum wages than his
 competitors and developing a profit-sharing
 program. At the same time he strongly resisted
 unionization, being in 1941 the last of the major
 automobile manufacturers to become unionized. His
 revolutionary moving assembly line, introduced in
 1913, influenced factories worldwide. Ford was also
 the most prominent anti-Jewish bigot of the 1920s,
 who refused to moderate his position even though a
 committee headed by Presidents 
WILSON and 
TAFT
 asked him to do so, and whose Dearborn Independent
 printed an uninterrupted series of anti-Semitic
 articles until 1927, when threatened boycotts and
 lawsuits forced his public apology.

Forrestal, James Vincent (1892-1949), U.S.
 investment banker, who joined the administration of
 Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT in 1940 and became
 undersecretary and then secretary of the navy. He
 became secretary of defense in 1947, resigned under
 political pressure in March 1949, and committed
 suicide in May 1949.

Forrestal explosion (July 29, 1967), explosion of
 the 
U.S.S. FORRESTAL, in the South China Sea, off
 South Vietnam, killing 134 people.

Fortas, Abe (1910-82), U.S. lawyer and law
 professor, who held several federal government
 posts 1937-46, then becoming a prominent Washington
 lawyer. He was appointed to the Supreme Court by
 Lyndon B. 
JOHNSON in 1965 and was nominated by
 Johnson to succeed Chief Justice Earl 
WARREN in
 1968, but the latter appointment was successfully
 resisted by Senate conservatives. In 1969 charges
 of possibly irregular, though not illegal,
 financial conduct caused him to resign from the
 Court, the first such resignation in history.

Fosdick, Harry Emerson (1878-1969), U.S. Protestant
 minister and educator, professor at Union
 Theological Seminary 1908-46, pastor of Riverside
 Church 1926-46, and one of the leading liberal
 ministers of his time. Fosdick took the modernist
 position in attempting to reconcile Christianity,
 social justice, and science, and in practical terms
 he became a leading political liberal on such
 issues as racial discrimination and planned
 parenthood.

Fossey, Dian (1932-85), U.S. primatologist, known
 for her studies of mountain gorillas in east
 central Africa. Like Jane 
GOODALL encouraged by
 Louis 
LEAKEY, she worked first in 1966 in Zaire
 (then the Congo), and from 1967 at the Karisoke
 Research Centre in Rwanda's Virungas Mountains,
 where the local people called her Nyiramachabelli,
 meaning "the old lady who lives in the forest
 without a man." But her singleminded concern for
 the mountain gorillas led her into direct conflict
 with some in Rwanda who desired the land occupied
 by the endangered species. Her 1983 book, Gorillas
 in the Mist, inspired the 1987 book and 1988 movie
 about her life and work.

fossil fuels, burnable substances such as oil,
 coal, or natural gas, formed from ancient plants
 deposited in previous ages and latterly put to
 human use. Gas by-products of burning such fuels
 are implicated in major ecological effects, such as
 
ACID RAIN and in long-term global changes such as
 the 
GREENHOUSE EFFECT. The 1970s 
OIL EMBARGO
 temporarily spurred efforts to find other, cleaner
 energy sources, such as 
SOLAR POWER and synthetic
 fuels, but the oil glut of the 1980s caused funding
 for such efforts to drop to almost nothing.

Foster, William Zebulon (1881-1961), U.S.
 industrial worker, who became a socialist, an
 organizer for the 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD

 (IWW), founder of the Syndicalist League of North
 America in 1912, and leader of the 
AMERICAN

 FEDERATION OF LABOR (AFL) great steel strike of
 1919, which failed to organize the basic steel
 industry. In 1920 he initiated the Trade Union
 Educational League and in 1921 joined and became a
 leading member of the Communist Party; he was its
 presidential candidate in 1924, 1928, and 1932.
 After his old friend and associate, Earl 
BROWDER,
 was removed from Communist Party leadership in
 1945, Foster became chairman of his party. He was
 indicted with other Communist leaders in 1948 but
 was excused from the 
SMITH ACT TRIALS because of
 poor health, continuing  as party chairman until
 1957.

Foucault, Michel (1926-84), French philosopher
 linked with 
STRUCTURALISM, who tried to find a
 historical sequence of basic thought structures. He
 explored the relationship between society and
 social deviance, especially in people regarded as
 insane or criminal, in works such as Madness and
 Civilization (1961) and The Archaeology of
 Knowledge (1969).

Four Freedoms, freedom of speech and expression,
 freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom
 from fear of war; these slogans were originated by
 Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT in his January 6, 1941,
 State of the Union speech and became key popular
 slogans during and immediately after World War II.


Fourteen Points, a peace and post-World War I
 redevelopment program put forward by U.S. president
 Woodrow 
WILSON on January 8, 1918, which became
 the basis of the American position at the 
PARIS

 PEACE CONFERENCE of 1919 and which included a
 proposal for the formation of a 
LEAGUE OF

 NATIONS. That proposal was adopted and embodied in
 the Treaty of 
VERSAILLES, as were his and other
 proposals for the creation of several new European
 nations. But the U.S. Senate was unwilling to
 authorize American participation in the League of
 Nations; it refused to ratify the Treaty of
 Versailles and in 1921 made a separate peace.

Fourth Arab-Israeli War (October 6-24, 1973), an
 alternate name for the 
YOM KIPPUR WAR, also
 called the 
OCTOBER WAR.

France (French Republic), until the fall of France
 in 1940, a country governed by the Third Republic,
 formed in 1870. During World War II, the puppet
 
VICHY GOVERNMENT existed during the period of the
 German occupation. The Fourth Republic governed
 1947-58, until the crisis generated by the
 
ALGERIAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. The Fifth Republic
 was formed under the leadership of Charles 
DE

 GAULLE, in 1958.

France, Battle of (June 5-25, 1940), conflict early
 in World War II after the Battle of 
FLANDERS,
 which ended with the evacuation at 
DUNKIRK. As
 the German army moved south against remaining
 French forces, they smashed them in a week, the
 French government fleeing from Paris to Bordeaux.
 Paris was declared an open city on June 13; the
 Germans marched in on June 14. France surrendered
 on June 21, effective June 25.

Francis Ferdinand of Austria (1863-1914), archduke
 and heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne who was
 assassinated with his wife at 
SARAJEVO, on June
 28, 1914, setting off 
WORLD WAR I.

Franco, Francisco (1892-1975), Spanish soldier, who
 became a general in the 1920s, was sent to commands
 abroad in 1931 and 1936 by two Spanish Republican
 governments, and came back in 1936 to lead the
 winning Nationalists in the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR.
 From 1939 to 1975, he reigned as dictator of
 fascist Spain. He maintained official neutrality
 during World War II while informally cooperating
 with Germany and Italy for much of the war; the
 Spanish 
BLUE DIVISION fought on the Russian front
 beside its Nazi allies.

Frank, Hans (1900-46), Nazi party official, justice
 minister, and governor of much of Poland during
 World War II. Frank was convicted of war crimes at
 the 
NUREMBERG TRIALS and executed in 1946.

Frank, Leo (1884-1915), Brooklyn-born Jew who was
 accused and convicted of the rape and murder of
 14-year-old Mary Phagan in Atlanta, Georgia, April
 26, 1913.  Active in Atlanta's Jewish community,
 Frank was tried and convicted in an anti-Jewish
 climate that precluded the possibility of a fair
 trial. A worldwide campaign for his release and new
 evidence discovered by detective William J. Burns
 brought commutation of his death sentence in June
 1915. On August 17, 1915, a lynch mob removed him
 from jail without opposition from prison guards,
 and later that day he was lynched by the mob in
 Marietta, Georgia.

Frankfurter, Felix (1882-1965), U.S. lawyer and
 Harvard law professor 1914-39, who was also active
 as an advisor to government, a founder of the
 
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION, and a legal
 writer; in 1939 he was appointed to the Supreme
 Court by Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT. He became,
 somewhat to the surprise of many, one of the
 leading conservative members of the Court,
 advocating judicial restraint, rather than activism
 in pursuing social and political goals.

Franklin, Rosalind (1920-58), British biochemist,
 whose work in 
X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, along with
 Maurice 
WILKINS, produced key photographs that
 aided James 
WATSON and Francis 
CRICK in
 uncovering the 
DOUBLE HELIX structure of 
DNA,
 though she died before she could share in their
 1962 Nobel Prize.

Fraser, Malcolm (1930- ), Australian rancher, in
 parliament from 1955, who became Liberal Party
 leader in 1975 and was prime minister of the
 Liberal-National Country coalition government
 1975-83. In that position he leaned strongly toward
 the United States and substantially reversed the
 somewhat more neutralist policies of the previous
 Labour government. Worsening economic problems
 helped bring Labour back into office in 1983.

Fraser, Peter (1884-1950), New Zealand trade
 unionist and socialist, a Labour party founder who
 was imprisoned for his opposition to involvement in
 World War I, became a member of parliament in 1918,
 and rose to become prime minister 1940-49. He took
 his country through World War II, which he did not
 oppose, and into the postwar period.

Frazer, James George (1854-1941), British
 anthropologist and classical scholar, whose Golden
 Bough, published in brief in 1890 but expanded into
 12 volumes in 1907-15, was a seminal work on
 religion, magic, and folklore, drawn on by scholars
 from his own and many other fields.

Free French, the London-based French
 government-in-exile led by Charles 
DE GAULLE from
 June 1940. With Allied support, the Free French
 began to develop small military forces in Britain
 and in the French central African colonies,
 developing further strength when the Allies took
 North Africa and many former 
VICHY French
 soldiers joined the Allied forces. As the invasion
 of Europe approached, substantial resistance forces
 grew in France, and the Free French became the
 Committee of National Liberation and then the
 French provisional government, De Gaulle entering
 Paris as its leader on August 26, 1944, one day
 after the Allied liberation of the city.

Freedom of Information Act, a 1966 U.S. law,
 requiring increased disclosure of information held
 by the federal government and providing a procedure
 for legal challenge of government secrecy claims,
 although it continued to protect much information
 from public disclosure.

freedom rides, a nonviolent interracial campaign to
 desegregate public transportation and related
 facilities in the American South, originally
 organized by the 
CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY

 (CORE) in May 1961. The campaign, featuring the
 use of segregated facilities by Blacks, often as
 part of interracial groups, was met by violence in
 many parts of the South and was ultimately
 federally enforced.

Freedom 7, 
U.S. MERCURY spacecraft that first put
 an American into space; flown on a suborbital
 flight on May 5, 1961, by Alan 
SHEPARD.

Frei Montalva, Eduardo (1911-82), Chilean Catholic
 liberal political leader, a founder of the
 Christian Democratic party, and president of Chile
 1964-70, who inaugurated a series of major land,
 industrial, and financial reforms during his
 presidency. He could not run again in 1970, given
 Chile's one-term presidency, and was succeeded by
 Salvador 
ALLENDE. After the military coup of 1973
 and Allende's death, Frei strongly opposed the new
 military government of Augusto 
PINOCHET and its
 reign of terror.

Freikorps (Free Corps), the right-wing German
 militia developed by the German general staff in
 alliance with the new socialist government during
 the 
GERMAN REVOLUTION of 1918. In 1920 a
 government attempt to control the Freikorps led to
 its attempted 
KAPP PUTSCH, and its dissolution
 after the coup failed.

Frelimo (National Liberation Front), the Mozambique
 ruling party was founded by Eduardo 
MONDLANE in
 1962 as a united front against Portuguese rule. It
 fought and won the long 
MOZAMBIQUE WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE (1964-74) and became the Marxist
 governing party of that single-party state in 1975.


French Army mutinies (April-May 1917), World War I
 army revolt that followed the failed 
NIVELLE

 OFFENSIVE in Champagne and took much of the French
 army out of its trenches on the Western Front for
 most of May. Tens of thousands of arrests were
 made; 55 mutineers were shot.

French Equatorial Africa, four former French
 colonies, all of which became overseas territories
 in 1946 and independent nations in 1960. 
CHAD and
 
GABON retained their names. Middle Congo became
 the Republic of the 
CONGO; Ubangi-Shari became
 the 
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC.

French Somaliland, the former name of 
DJIBOUTI
 (Republic of Djibouti), which became the Territory
 of the 
AFARS AND ISSAS in 1966, and Djibouti in
 1977.

French Togoland, the eastern portion of 
TOGOLAND,
 which became the independent nation of 
TOGO on
 April 17, 1960.

Freon, alternate name for 
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS,
 implicated from at least 1974 in depletion of the
 
OZONE LAYER.

Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939), Viennese neurologist
 who founded 
PSYCHOANALYSIS. Early work with
 hysteria and hypnosis and analysis of his own
 dreams and childhood development led to Freud's key
 studies, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) and
 The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1904). From
 explorations of the influence of sexual life and
 fantasies on the development of neuroses, Freud
 developed a general theory of the personality
 (involving the unconscious primitive id, the
 conscious ego, and its "conscience," the superego)
 and the therapeutic approach of psychoanalysis.
 Though highly controversial in his lifetime,
 Freud's work attracted some key followers,
 including his daughter Anna (1895-1982); through
 them his ideas and the techniques of psychoanalysis
 spread widely, especially in the United States
 after World War II, influencing not only modern
 psychology but much popular thinking.

Frick, Wilhelm (1887-1946), Nazi party official,
 interior minister, and governor of much of
 Czechoslovakia during World War II. Frick was
 convicted of war crimes at the 
NUREMBERG TRIALS
 and executed in 1946.

Friedan, Betty Naomi (1921- ), U.S. feminist
 activist and writer, whose book The Feminine
 Mystique (1963), had substantial impact on the
 development of the modern American women's
 movement. In 1966 she was a founder of the
 
NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR WOMEN (NOW), and was
 its president until 1970, thereafter continuing to
 work as a writer and activist.

Friedman, Milton (1912- ), U.S. economist, whose
 monetarist and laissez-faire economic theories
 deeply influenced the thinking of such politically
 and economically conservative leaders as Richard M.
 
NIXON, Margaret 
THATCHER, and Ronald 
REAGAN
 in the United States, Britain, and other
 industrially developed countries from the
 mid-1960s. His opposition to government economic
 intervention brought him to advocate such measures
 as unlimited free trade, deregulation of many
 industries, divestiture of publicly owned
 institutions, and the destruction of existing
 government-funded social service networks. He was
 awarded the 1976 Nobel Prize for 
ECONOMICS.

Friendship 7, 
U.S. MERCURY spacecraft that put
 the first American into orbit around the Earth;
 flown on a 5-hour, 3-orbit flight on February 20,
 1962, by John 
GLENN.

Frolinat (Chad National Liberation Front), an
 insurgent movement formed in northern 
CHAD in
 1966 to oppose the southern-based government of
 Francois Tombalbaye (N'Garta) and the French
 military force still occupying northern Chad in
 support of the year-old government of independent
 Chad. Frolinat remained a major insurgent force
 until 1976, then began a long process of breakup
 into opposing factions, and thereafter became an
 "umbrella" term for many northern-based insurgent
 groupings, each of them claiming to be the leading
 force in the insurgent movement.

Fromm, Erich (1900-80), German-American
 psychoanalyst and social critic, who focused on the
 cultural, rather than biological, factors in the
 shaping of the individual. A student, professor,
 and practitioner of 
PSYCHOANALYSIS in Germany,
 Fromm emigrated to the United States in 1934 after
 the rise of the Nazis, gradually moving away from
 the strict views of 
FREUD to a wider
 consideration of the individual in society. His
 popular writings, such as Escape From Freedom
 (1941), reflected his feelings as a humanist,
 pacifist, and critic of the dangers for humans in a
 technological society.

Fromme, Lynette Alice "Squeaky," follower of
 Charles 
MANSON who tried to shoot president
 Gerald R. 
FORD in Sacramento, California, on
 September 5, 1975, but did not fire; she was
 immediately captured and subsequently sentenced to
 life imprisonment.

Frontiers, Battles of the (August 14-23, 1914), a
 group of major World War I battles fought by the
 Franco-British and German armies along the
 Franco-Belgian and Franco-German borders. In
 Alsace-Lorraine, when the French attacked, the
 Germans first fell back, as provided by the
 
SCHLIEFFEN PLAN, and then counterattacked,
 completely stopping the French advance. In the
 Ardennes region, the French attacked, but the
 Germans held firm, according to plan. To the west
 and north, the main German forces attacked through
 Belgium, aiming to sweep around Paris and enfold
 the French and British armies, also as provided by
 the Schlieffen Plan. In southern Belgium, at the
 Sambre River, part of the main German force quickly
 overran the French Fifth Army, forcing its retreat.
 A little further west, at Mons, the 
BRITISH

 EXPEDITIONARY FORCE was forced to retreat,
 fighting and retreating again at Le Cateau, on the
 French side of the border, while the French managed
 to slow the German advance at Guise. The Germans
 then turned toward Paris and the first Battle of
 the 
MARNE, one of the decisive battles of the
 20th century.

Front-Line States, term for Angola, Botswana,
 Mozambique, Tanzania, and Mozambique; together they
 are seen by the nations of Black Africa as those
 countries directly confronting the segregationist
 South African government.

FSLIC, the 
FEDERAL SAVINGS AND LOAN INSURANCE

 CORPORATION, the U.S. federal agency that insures
 most deposits in federally chartered savings and
 loan associations.

Fuchs, Klaus (1911-88), German-British atomic
 physicist, who worked on the development of the
 
ATOMIC BOMB at 
LOS ALAMOS 1944-45, then
 returned to Britain to head the physics department
 at the Harwell atomic energy installation. He was a
 Soviet spy from 1943 and passed atomic information
 to the Soviet Union. He was exposed in 1950,
 confessed, and was imprisoned until 1959,
 thereafter continuing to work on 
NUCLEAR ENERGY
 in East Germany and the Soviet Union.

Fugard, Athol (1932- ), South African playwright
 and novelist, a White who in such plays as Boesman
 and Lena, Sizwe Bansi Is Dead, and Master Harold
 ... & the Boys powerfully attacked the system of
 
APARTHEID, and the racism from which it springs.


Fulbright, James William (1905- ), U.S. lawyer, an
 Arkansas Democratic congressman 1943-45 and senator
 1945-75. In 1945, he sponsored the Fulbright Act,
 initiating the educational interchange program that
 bears his name. He headed the Senate Banking and
 Currency committee 1955-59 and the Foreign Affairs
 Committee 1959-75, from that vantage point opposing
 such adventures as the 
BAY OF PIGS INVASION and
 the developing American Vietnam intervention during
 the 1960s; he was a leading opponent of the
 
VIETNAM WAR.

Fuller, Melville Weston (1833-1910), U.S. lawyer
 and state legislator, who in 1888 became chief
 justice of the United States, a position he held
 until 1910. A moderate conservative, his main role
 was that of administrator, rather than judicial
 leader.

Fuller, Richard Buckminster (1895-1983), designer
 and inventor who popularized the 
GEODESIC DOME.
 After an apprenticeship in a family construction
 firm, in 1927 the largely self-trained Fuller began
 to develop his unorthodox designs for inexpensive
 houses, cars, and other items. Though his early
 corporations had little commercial success, in 1954
 he formed a new corporation to sell his geodesic
 dome, a structure composed of lightweight metal
 tetrahedrons, using his characteristic small amount
 of material to maximum effect. Easily erected and
 solidly built, these domes attracted wide
 attention, and were used, for example, to house
 people and equipment along the Arctic Distant Early
 Warning (DEW) line. Fuller's unconventional
 approach brought him great attention and popularity
 late in life, especially in the 1960s.

Gabon (Gabonese Republic), earlier part of French
 Equatorial Africa, becoming an independent state on
 August 17, 1960. The new country's first president
 was Leon M'ba, who was succeeded after his death in
 1968 by Vice-President Albert-Bernard (later El
 Hadj Omar) Bongo. Under Bongo, Gabon became a
 one-party state.

Gacy, John Wayne, U.S. mass murderer, who killed 33
 boys and young men during 1972-78, at his suburban
 home in Knollwood Park, near Chicago; he was
 convicted of the murders in 1980.

Gagarin, Yuri Alekseyevich (1934-68), Soviet pilot
 who became the world's first astronaut; on April
 12, 1961, in the spacecraft Vostok I, he made the
 first space flight, orbiting the Earth once. He
 died in an air accident in 1968.

Gaitskell, Hugh (1906-63), British economist and
 moderate socialist, who became a Labour MP in 1945,
 joined the 
ATTLEE government in 1947 as fuel and
 power minister, became chancellor of the exchequer
 in 1950, and succeeded Attlee as leader of the
 Labour party in 1955.

Galbraith, John Kenneth (1908- ), Canadian-American
 economist, writer, and social critic, whose
 thinking was greatly influenced by that of John
 Maynard 
KEYNES. A leading liberal, he was an
 advisor to John F. 
KENNEDY and was ambassador to
 India 1961-63. After the late 1960s his continuing
 advocacy of government economic and social
 intervention, as well as his opposition to the
 dominant laissez-faire and monetarist theories of
 such conservative presidents as Richard M. 
NIXON
 and Ronald 
REAGAN placed him outside the
 corridors of power, although his continuing stream
 of writings continued to greatly influence liberal
 thinking. His book 
THE AFFLUENT SOCIETY (1958)
 sharply criticized American overconsumption habits
 of the day, the sardonic phrase then moving into
 the language.

Galen, pseudonym adopted by Vasili 
BLUCHER during
 1924-27, when he was Soviet military advisor to
 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK.

Gallipoli expedition (February 1915-January 1916),
 a long, ultimately failed British-French attack on
 Turkish forces in the Dardanelles and the Gallipoli
 Peninsula. The British fleet lost three battleships
 while attacking Turkish shore fortifications in the
 Dardanelles, and three more battleships were
 disabled; three more were lost later in the
 campaign. The expeditionary force was pinned down
 on its small beachheads for months. There were a
 little over 500,000 casualties, half of them
 Allied, half Turkish.

Gallup, George Horace (1901-84), U.S. statistician
 and public-opinion analyst who was a key figure in
 the development of scientifically based public
 opinion polls. In 1935 he founded the American
 Institute of Public Opinion, which conducted Gallup
 Polls on the main political and social issues of
 the day while also doing polls for market research
 and advertising. He expanded to Britain in 1936 and
 later to some 30 other countries as well,
 especially after World War II.

Galveston hurricane (September 8, 1900), a Gulf
 Coast hurricane that destroyed much of Galveston,
 Texas, killing an estimated 6,000 people and
 causing tremendous physical damage.

Gambia (Republic of the Gambia), until 1963, a
 British colony; after gaining internal autonomy in
 1963 it became an independent state and
 
COMMONWEALTH member on February 18, 1965. The
 country has been led by President Dawda Kairaba
 Jawara since 1962. On February 1, 1982, Gambia
 joined its much larger neighbor, Senegal, in the
 confederation of 
SENEGAMBIA.

Gamelin, Maurice Gustave (1872-1958), French
 officer, who saw action in World War I, commanded
 the French army from 1935, and was one of the chief
 architects of the Allied defensive strategy during
 the 
PHONY WAR period. His failure in command
 contributed to the success of the German attack on
 France and its allies in the spring of 1940. In
 late May, too late to undo the damage, he was
 relieved of command.

game theory, mathematical analysis of conflict
 situations, taking as a model parlor games as if
 played for money, with each player trying to
 maximize gain and minimize loss, the result of the
 conflict for each person in various situations
 being the "payoff." First suggested in 1921 and
 explored by French mathematician Emile Borel, game
 theory was actually formulated in 1926 by John von
 
NEUMANN, later working with German-American
 economist Oskar Morgenstern; their classic work is
 Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (1944). Game
 theory had wide application, notably in economics,
 politics, and military situations.

gamma rays, type of low-frequency 
RADIATION and
 one of the three products of natural
 
RADIOACTIVITY; discovered in 1900 by French
 physicist Paul Villard and quickly found by Ernest
 
RUTHERFORD to be similar to 
X-RAYS, but with a
 shorter wavelength.

Gamow, George (1904-68), Russian-American
 physicist, who was a leading exponent of the 
BIG

 BANG THEORY of the universe's origin. In America
 from 1934, Gamow expanded on Hans 
BETHE's ideas
 to show that as a star uses up its hydrogen fuel it
 becomes hotter, not cooler. In 1954, he was the
 first to suggest that nucleic acids in 
DNA worked
 in groups of units as a genetic code. He also wrote
 many widely popular books, notably One, Two, Three
 ... Infinity (1947).

Gandhi, Indira (1917-84), Indian political leader,
 the daughter and political heir of Jawaharlal
 
NEHRU, who was active in the 
CONGRESS PARTY
 from her youth. She succeeded Lal Bahadur Shastri
 as prime minister after his death in January 1966.
 Her party split in 1969, but her faction won a
 decisive majority in the 1971 elections, returning
 her to power. Her party declared a state of
 emergency in June 1975, in response to a powerful
 campaign to remove her from parliament for alleged
 electoral fraud. She then arrested hundreds of
 opposition leaders, curbed press freedom, and ruled
 by decree until the parliamentary elections of
 1977, in which her party was defeated by the Janata
 party. In January 1978, she and her followers split
 from the Congress party to form the Indian National
 party-Indira; in November, she was reelected to
 parliament, but was refused her seat and imprisoned
 for the balance of that parliamentary term (1
 week). She became prime minister again when her
 party secured a huge majority in the 1980
 elections. During the early 1980s, she faced
 mounting internal violence, including a major
 campaign for Sikh autonomy in the Punjab, which
 climaxed in the June 1984 Indian army assault on
 the Sikh 
GOLDEN TEMPLE in Amritsar. On October
 31, 1984, she was assassinated by two Sikh members
 of her personal guard and was succeeded by her son,
 Rajiv 
GANDHI.

Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand "Mahatma" Gandhi,
 Mohandas Karamchand "Mahatma" (1869-1948), Indian
 barrister, who became the Mahatma (Great Soul) to
 hundreds of millions of Indians. He was the
 spiritual and political leader of the Indian
 independence movement, a worldwide symbol of
 commitment to the poor and suffering, and the
 foremost advocate and practitioner of nonviolence,
 in the form he called 
SATYAGRAHA, during the
 first half of the 20th century. Born in India, and
 trained as a barrister in London, he took a job in
 South Africa in 1893; there, after suffering racist
 indignities, he entered public life, organizing the
 Natal Indian Congress in 1894 and in 1906 beginning
 the first satyagraha campaign, which ended in 1913
 with substantial gains. In 1914 he went home to
 India, practiced law, and in February 1919 emerged
 as the leader of India's first satyagraha campaign,
 which swept India, and which he ended temporarily
 after the violence that began with the 
AMRITSAR

 MASSACRE. At the head of the 
CONGRESS PARTY he
 led a huge satyagraha movement in 1920-22 and was
 imprisoned from 1922 to 1924. He lost much
 influence as the independence movement fragmented
 in the mid-1920s but emerged again to lead the
 massive salt tax satyagraha campaign of 1930. In
 1932, imprisoned again by the British, he fasted,
 beginning his long campaign on behalf of the
 Untouchables, whom he called Harijans (children of
 God). During the mid-1930s he focused on multiple
 campaigns for the Indian poor and oppressed. In
 1942 he and the other leaders of the Congress Party
 called on the British to leave India and were
 imprisoned; he was released in 1942 because of ill
 health the others remaining in prison until the end
 of World War II. After the war, in the run-up to
 Indian independence, he unsuccessfully opposed the
 
PARTITION OF INDIA, and then attempted to stop
 the rioting and mass murder that accompanied
 partition. He was assassinated by a Hindu extremist
 in New Delhi, on January 30, 1948.

Gandhi, Rajiv (1944- ), Indian engineer and pilot,
 son of Indira 
GANDHI and grandson of Jawaharlal
 
NEHRU, who succeeded his mother as Indian prime
 minister after her assassination in October 1984.
 He had entered political life after the death of
 his brother, Sanjay, who had been groomed as his
 mother's political heir before his death in a 1980
 airplane crash, becoming a member of parliament in
 1981 and general secretary of the Congress
 party-Indira in 1983. As prime minister he faced
 continuing Sikh terrorism in the Punjab as well as
 continuing armed insurgency and communal violence
 in several other northern provinces. In 1987 his
 government directly intervened in Sri Lanka, in an
 attempt to end the long 
SRI LANKAN CIVIL WAR. In
 1989 he and Benazir 
BHUTTO began an attempt to
 normalize always-sensitive India-Pakistan
 relations. He resigned in November 1989, after
 failing to win enough seats to form a government,
 and was succeeded by National Front leader V.P.
 
SINGH.

Gang of Four, 
JIANG QING, Zhang Chunqiao, Wang
 Hongwen, and Yao Wenhuan, Chinese 
CULTURAL

 REVOLUTION leaders who were accused of attempting
 to take power in China after Mao's death. All were
 arrested in October 1976 and subsequently convicted
 of a considerable series of crimes against the
 state. Jiang had, until the death of her husband,
 
MAO ZEDONG, wielded immense power in China, much
 of it by inference in his name. Her arrest, as
 leader of the Gang of Four, signaled the victory of
 far more moderate forces, and a turn away from
 Maoism in China.

Garner, John Nance (1868-1967), U.S. lawyer,
 journalist, and 15-term Texas congressman
 (1903-33). "Cactus Jack" Garner was Speaker of the
 House of Representatives before becoming Franklin
 D. 
ROOSEVELT's vice-president (1933-41). A
 conservative, he was chosen to balance the
 Roosevelt ticket; he broke with Roosevelt in 1937
 and was an unsuccessful candidate for the
 Democratic nomination in 1940, thereafter retiring.


Garvey, Marcus Mosiah (1887-1940), Jamaican Black
 nationalist and 
PAN-AFRICAN leader, who became
 leader of the American "Back to Africa" movement.
 He founded the Universal Negro Improvement
 Association (UNIA) in Jamaica in 1914, and in 1916
 transferred his main activities to New York, where
 he founded the widely circulated newspaper Negro
 World. In 1919 he founded the Black Star shipping
 line and in 1920 became provisional president of
 the African Republic at a New York UNIA convention,
 in that period becoming a major force in the
 American Black community. In 1923 he was convicted
 of stock fraud in connection with his failing Black
 Star line, began a 5-year prison term in 1925 and
 was deported to Jamaica in 1927 after his sentence
 had been commuted, his movement and influence then
 sharply declining.

GATT, the initials of the 
GENERAL AGREEMENT ON

 TARIFFS AND TRADE, a multinational trade
 regulation organization.

Gay Liberation, a U.S. movement for homosexual
 equal rights, that began after the June 1969 police
 raid on the Stonewall Inn in New York City, and
 quickly grew into a national movement, with large
 numbers of male and female gays openly declaring
 their sexual preferences and coming "out of the
 closet" demanding equal legal and social rights. In
 spite of a conservative countermovement, the Gay
 Liberation movement made considerable social and
 some legal progress, though it was greatly damaged
 in the 1980s by the enormous medical and social
 impact of the 
AIDS epidemic.

Gaza, Battles of (1917), three World War I battles,
 in which British forces tried to take Gaza, finally
 succeeding. Their first attempt, on March 26,
 failed, with almost 4,000 casualties. Their second,
 on April 17, was a direct attack on well-fortified
 Turkish positions; it also failed, with over 6,000
 casualties. Their third, on October 31, took the
 form of a successful attack on Beersheba, followed
 by a move toward now-vulnerable Gaza, which was
 then evacuated by the Turks. The British pursued
 the retreating Turks, taking Jerusalem on December
 9.

Gaza Strip, a 25-mile-long section of Mediterranean
 shore, 4-9 miles deep, in southwestern Palestine,
 centered on the Arab town of Gaza. It has been
 disputed territory ever since the 1948 
ISRAELI WAR

 OF INDEPENDENCE (FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR), occupied
 by Egypt 1948-56, by Israel 1956-57, by Egypt again
 until 1967, and by Israel from 1967. Its population
 of over 500,000, most of them Palestinian refugees
 and the children of refugees, became deeply
 involved in the 
INTIFADA, beginning in 1988,
 although largely dependent on wages earned at
 low-paying jobs in Israel.

Gdansk Lenin Shipyard strike (August 1980), the
 strike of 17,000 workers at the Gdansk Lenin
 Shipyard on August 14, 1980, which led to a series
 of related strikes on the Baltic coast and then
 throughout Poland. The Gdansk strikes were settled
 by the Gdansk Agreement of August 30, negotiated by
 a committee headed by Lech 
WALESA; it led in turn
 to the formation of 
SOLIDARITY, on September 22.


Geiger, Johannes Wilhelm (1882-1945), German
 physicist, who in 1913 developed a device to record
 energized subatomic particles, or 
RADIATION, now
 called a Geiger counter. Earlier, as an assistant
 to Ernest 
RUTHERFORD, he worked on the
 experiments that led to the nucleus-centered theory
 of 
ATOMIC STRUCTURE. During World War II he
 participated in Germany's unsuccessful attempt to
 develop an 
ATOMIC BOMB.

Gell-Mann, Murray (1929- ), U.S. physicist, who in
 1946 discovered an unusual quality of certain
 subatomic 
PARTICLES, which in 1953 he (and
 others) labeled 
STRANGENESS, and in 1961
 developed a schematic for classifying elementary
 particles, for which he was awarded the 1969 Nobel
 Prize for Physics. In 1964, with Richard 
FEYNMAN,
 he also proposed the idea that 
QUARKS were the
 basic building blocks of matter, a theory reached
 independently by George Zweig.

Gemayel, Amin (1942- ), Lebanese lawyer and
 Maronite Christian leader, oldest son of Pierre
 
GEMAYEL; he became president of Lebanon in 1982
 after the assassination of his brother,
 president-elect Bashir 
GEMAYEL. A moderate, he
 had little impact on the warring Lebanese militias,
 the Syrians, the Israelis, and the course of events
 in his country.

Gemayel, Bashir (1947-82), Lebanese Maronite
 Christian leader, son of Pierre 
GEMAYEL; he
 became 
PHALANGE militia commander in 1976 and
 destroyed competing Christian militias as well as
 Muslim and leftist civil war adversaries. Gemayel
 opposed Syrian intervention, covertly welcomed
 Israeli intervention, and sought to establish a
 Christian Lebanon, if necessary partitioning the
 country to achieve his goal. In August 1982 he
 became president-elect of Lebanon; he was
 assassinated on September 14 and was then succeeded
 by his brother, Amin 
GEMAYEL.

Gemayel, Pierre (1905-84), Lebanese Maronite
 Christian leader, who founded the 
PHALANGE party
 in 1936, then becoming and remaining a powerful
 force in Lebanese politics until his death; father
 of Amin 
GEMAYEL and Bashir 
GEMAYEL. He was a
 member of parliament (1960-84), but his chief
 strength was as leader of his party and its militia
 during the 
LEBANESE CIVIL WAR of 1958 and the
 
LEBANESE WARS of the 1970s and 1980s.

Gemini, series of U.S. spacecraft that flew
 missions from 1965 to 1966, after the 
MERCURY and
 before the 
APOLLO programs. In 1965 Gemini 3 flew
 the U.S.'s first two-man space crew, Virgil
 
GRISSOM and John Young; in the same year Gemini 6
 and 7 accomplished the first rendezvous in space;
 in 1966 Gemini 8 participated in the first dual
 launch of spacecraft, and docking in space with an
 unpiloted craft.

gene, unit of inheritance, a term proposed in 1909
 by W. L. Johannsen for something discovered only a
 year later by Thomas Hunt 
MORGAN. Morgan found
 that genes were lined up in rows on chromosomes and
 that certain characteristics were linked by
 appearing near each other on the same chromosome,
 called sex-linked if they were on the chromosome
 that determined the individual's sex. Such
 information allowed the drafting of the first
 chromosome "map" in 1912. In 1927 Hermann J. Muller
 discovered that 
X-RAYS could cause mutations in
 genes, study of which revealed that genes were made
 up of more basic material, later found to be 
DNA.
 A single gene was isolated for the first time in
 1969 by Jonathan Beckwith and other researchers.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), a
 multinational trade-regulation organization set up
 after the signing of the 1947 General Agreement on
 Tariffs and Trade, with almost 100 member nations.
 GATT has since functioned as a vehicle for scores
 of interim meetings and for eight major rounds of
 trade and tariff negotiations, the eighth, or
 "Uruguay Round" still being in progress. The
 "
KENNEDY ROUND" of the mid-1960s took substantial
 steps to reduce tariffs and trade barriers;
 developing trade imbalances, competitive pressures,
 and economic slowdown impeded development
 thereafter.

General Belgrano, the Argentinian cruiser sunk by
 British torpedoes on May 2, 1982, during the
 
FALKLANDS WAR.

General Slocum fire 
(JUNE 15, 1904), FIRE ON THE

 EXCURSION STEAMER GENERAL SLOCUM in the East
 River, off Manhattan, caused by a combination of
 incompetent seamanship, unavailable lifeboats, and
 defective lifejackets. The fire ultimately caused
 the death of l,031 people, even though help was
 never more than a few hundred yards away. Had the
 captain steered for shore, the disaster would have
 been averted.

General Strike, British (May 4-12, 1926), a
 nationwide strike called by the British Trades
 Union Congress in support of the miners' union,
 which struck because of employer demands for longer
 hours and lower pay. 
BALDWIN's Conservative
 government responded by using troops and large
 numbers of temporary police and volunteers to keep
 essential services and food supplies available, and
 succeeded in breaking the general strike, which was
 called off after 9 days. The miners' strike
 continued until August, the miners charging that
 the rest of the trade union movement had betrayed
 them.

genetic engineering, deliberate manipulation of
 
DNA, the hereditary material in 
GENES, for
 scientific purposes. Short segments of DNA are "cut
 and pasted"-that is, separated and recombined
 differently-to produce useful products, to
 eliminate defects, or to isolate 
GENETIC MARKERS
 for study; the spliced segments are called
 
RECOMBINANT DNA. From at least the 1940s,
 researchers had found that some life forms, such as
 bacteria, exchanged genetic material. Then in 1953
 Francis 
CRICK and James 
WATSON worked out the
 
DOUBLE HELIX structure of DNA; in 1969 Jonathan
 Beckwith and others isolated the first gene; and in
 1970 a team led by Har Gobind Khorana first
 synthesized a gene directly from chemicals.
 Meanwhile, in 1968 Werner Arber discovered that
 bacteria produce substances called restriction
 enzymes, that naturally split genes; the first such
 enzyme was found in 1970 by Hamilton Othanel Smith.
 Actual genetic engineering appeared in 1973 with
 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer's use of
 restriction enzymes to split and transfer genes
 from the Escherichia coli bacteria. Public concern
 over genetic engineering and the possibility of
 altered life forms escaping to overrun the
 environment brought pressure on the scientific
 community from 1974 to create stringent guidelines
 for researchers to follow; these were relaxed
 somewhat after 1980, but several scientists who had
 failed to get proper clearance had their
 experiments stopped. Even early on, the technique
 bore valuable fruit. As early as 1976 the first
 commercial genetic engineering firm, Genentech, was
 founded near San Francisco, California. Six years
 later the U.S. 
FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION
 approved the first genetically engineered
 commercial product, human 
INSULIN produced by
 bacteria (chosen partly because they reproduce so
 rapidly). By 1981 interferon, synthesized by
 genetically altered bacteria, was being used with
 cancer patients, and Genentech was offering the
 first genetically engineered vaccine, against
 hoof-and-mouth disease. The courts quickly became
 involved in ruling on these new forms of life. In
 1980 the Supreme Court ruled in Diamond v.
 Chakrabarty that genetically engineered biological
 organisms could be patented under federal law; at
 the time of the ruling, more than 100 other such
 patents were pending. The first field trials of
 genetically engineered organisms were held in 1986,
 earlier trials having been halted in court. The
 following year the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
 ruled that patents applied to all genetically
 engineered animals, and the first vertebrate-a
 genetically engineered mouse-was patented in 1988.


genetic fingerprint, repetitive sequences of DNA
 taken from a person's body fluids or tissue that,
 when analyzed, yield a unique pattern, akin to the
 
BAR CODE used on supermarket products. The
 technique, developed in 1984 by Alec Jeffreys, can
 identify individuals and confirm or rule out family
 relationships between people. Even as the technique
 was being refined, genetic fingerprinting was
 introduced in U.S. and British courts, the first
 conviction based on genetic fingerprinting
 occurring in 1987 in Britain. By 1989 California
 and other states were planning computerized data
 bases of genetic information on people convicted of
 violent crimes, though the efficacy and
 acceptability of the test remained to be determined
 through longer-term scientific analysis and
 courtroom use.

genetic marker, part of a 
DNA molecule linked
 with a specific genetic disease or defect. From the
 early 1970s various scientists realized that
 techniques being developed in 
GENETIC ENGINEERING
 could be used in a deliberate search for such
 markers. The first ones, for Duchenne muscular
 dystrophy and Huntington's disease, were found in
 1983. Once found, a marker can be used to tell
 individuals whether or not they carry the gene for
 the disease, and are likely to develop it later in
 life or pass it on to their children. The marker
 also can be isolated and analyzed to see precisely
 what results from a defective gene-in Duchenne
 muscular dystrophy, a protein essential to muscles
 is not produced. Such information also opens the
 door to correction by genetic engineering. From the
 mid-1980s major efforts were being made to make a
 map showing the location of all of the genes-some
 millions of them-carried by humans.

Geneva Accords on Vietnam (July 1954), an agreement
 between France and North Vietnam ending the
 
FRENCH-VIETNAMESE WAR and partitioning the
 country into North and South Vietnam, reached at
 the multinational Geneva Conference. A similar
 conference in 1961 agreed to the neutrality of
 Laos.

Geneva Conventions, series of international
 treaties regarding the treatment of various groups
 in wartime, the first treaty in 1864 covering
 medical treatment and personnel. It was followed by
 updates and expansions in the 20th century, notably
 in 1906 to include maritime warfare, in 1929 to
 cover prisoners of war, and in 1949 to cover
 civilians and civil wars. The treaties have been
 accepted by many countries as standards of
 civilized behavior but often are disregarded in
 practice.

Geneva Protocol, 1925 treaty banning use of
 
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE, much violated
 around the world and not ratified by the U.S.
 Senate until 1974, following President Richard
 
NIXON's 1969 unilateral renunciation of
 biological weapons and first use of chemical
 weapons.

Geneva summit (July 1955), the first postwar
 superpower summit, a week-long meeting between U.S.
 president Dwight D. 
EISENHOWER and U.S.S.R.
 premier Nikita 
KHRUSHCHEV. No specific agreements
 occurred, although a long dialogue began, expressed
 at the time as the "spirit of Geneva," or the
 willingness to seek peaceful solutions.

Geneva summit (November 1985), the first meeting
 between U.S. president Ronald 
REAGAN and U.S.
 premier Mikhail 
GORBACHEV, at which they began
 the series of discussions that would in 1987 and
 1988 eventuate in the INF 
TREATY, substantial
 reductions of regional conflicts in many parts of
 the world, and a great thaw and change in
 American-Soviet relations.

genocide, commission of acts intended to wholly or
 partly destroy any national, ethnic, racial, or
 religious group. Such acts have often occurred,
 before and during the 20th century; but the Nazi
 murder of millions of Jews in the 
HOLOCAUST
 generated demands to make genocide an international
 crime, and it was so defined by the 
UNITED

 NATIONS genocide convention of 1948. However, no
 prosecutions for genocide have eventuated since,
 although charges of genocide, a few of them quite
 clearly well founded, have been abundant in the
 latter half of the 20th century.

Genovese murder (March 13, 1964), a killing on a
 New York City street that attracted widespread
 attention, for scores of people in the surrounding
 area heard Kitty Genovese's cries for help over a
 period of more than 35 minutes; they did nothing to
 help her, not even calling the police.

Gentlemen's Agreement (1907), an informal agreement
 between President Theodore 
ROOSEVELT and the
 Japanese government by which the Japanese agreed to
 restrict emigration to the United States in return
 for the rescission of xenophobic anti-Japanese laws
 and regulations in the U.S. West Coast states.

geodesic dome, solidly built, easily erected
 structure composed of lightweight metal
 tetrahedrons, designed by R. Buckminster 
FULLER.
 It gained great attention at the 1967 Montreal
 Exposition and was later used to house people and
 equipment along the Arctic Distant Early Warning
 (DEW) line.

George V (George Frederick Ernest Albert,
 1865-1936), king of Great Britain 1910-36, through
 World War I and the onset of the Great Depression.
 He was the son of 
EDWARD VII, and the father of
 
EDWARD VIII, who became the duke of Windsor, and
 of 
GEORGE VI. Like most of the other British
 constitutional monarchs of the century, he was
 largely a symbol, rather than a figure of intrinsic
 power.

George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George,
 1895-1952), king of Great Britain, 1936-52, and
 father of 
ELIZABETH II. George VI and his wife,
 Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, later popularly dubbed the
 "Queen Mum," were important symbols to the British
 people during the very difficult early years of
 World War II.

geothermal energy, hot water or steam produced by
 the Earth and put to human use, either directly for
 heating or indirectly to create electricity by
 driving a turbine; most accessible in volcanic or
 earthquake areas where molten rock is relatively
 close to the surface and hot springs and geysers
 abound. The first known modern use was in Italy,
 where in 1907 Prince Piero Conti used naturally
 occurring steam to drive a steam engine hooked to a
 generator, producing electricity for local use; the
 first electrical plant for converting geothermal
 energy was built nearby in 1913. Since the 1950's
 several nations, such as Iceland and New Zealand,
 have made effective use of geothermal energy; the
 California electrical plant, The Geysers, started
 in 1960, was by the 1980s the largest geothermal
 plant in the world. Even so, this free energy
 source has been little tapped.

germ warfare, popular name for use of toxic
 biological agents in 
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

 WARFARE.

German Democratic Republic, the Soviet occupation
 zone after World War II, popularly known as East
 Germany, officially becoming a Soviet-bloc
 communist state on October 7, 1949. This concluded
 the formal partition of Germany, which had been
 partially effected by the establishment of the
 
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY on May 23, 1949. In
 late 1989, the massive changes of the 
GORBACHEV
 era swept through eastern and central Europe; the
 hardline East German government, led by Erich
 
HONECKER, at first strongly resisted change, but
 was swept away. In September, a tide of young
 emigrants flowed out of East Germany, through newly
 free Hungary. Simultaneously, massive pro-democracy
 demonstrations, involving hundreds of thousands,
 erupted in Leipzig, and soon spread to East Berlin,
 Dresden, and other cities. Honecker was deposed on
 October 18. On November 9, the government announced
 a policy of free travel and emigration to the West,
 negating the 
BERLIN WALL and opening a new
 chapter in German and European history.
 Pro-democracy demonstrations continued, as East
 Germans reached for free elections, to be held in
 early 1990.

German High Seas Fleet Mutiny (October 29, 1918),
 World War I uprising, in which German sailors ended
 the possibility of another major sea battle against
 the British fleet by seizing command of their own
 ships, almost 2 weeks before the Allied-German
 armistice of November 11, 1918.

German Revolution of 1918, uprising that began with
 a sailors' revolt at the Kiel naval base in early
 November and soon spread throughout Germany, with
 Workers' and Soldiers' Councils, along Soviet
 lines, spreading throughout the country. Emperor
 Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9 and fled the
 country, his government ceding power to Social
 Democrat Friedrich 
EBERT. On the night of
 November 10, Ebert and the German general staff
 allied themselves against the growing power of the
 left, developing a militia, the 
FREIKORPS, which
 on January 5, 1919 smashed the 
SPARTACIST revolt
 in Berlin and then went on to smash the armed
 forces of the left throughout the country. Ebert's
 government established the 
WEIMAR REPUBLIC, which
 was to last until the advent of the 
THIRD REICH
 in 1933.

German-American Bund, U.S. 
NAZI organization of
 the 1930s, that under the leadership of Fritz Kuhn
 and with the financial assistance of the German
 government, attempted to build Nazi support among
 German-Americans. It reached a membership of an
 estimated 10,000-20,000, conducted some anti-Jewish
 street actions, and disseminated a considerable
 volume of pro-Nazi propaganda, before the entry of
 the United States into World War II ended the
 effective life of the organization.

Germany, at the beginning of the 20th century, was
 the German Empire, a major power engaged in the
 long contest for supremacy that led to World War I.
 After the loss of that war, pursuant to the Treaty
 of 
VERSAILLES, Germany lost its overseas
 possessions and a good deal of its prewar territory
 while being forced to pay heavy war reparations.
 The 
GERMAN REVOLUTION OF 1918 and the subsequent
 
SPARTACIST REVOLT ushered in the short-lived
 
WEIMAR REPUBLIC, to be succeeded in 1933 by the
 
THIRD REICH of Adolf 
HITLER. Hitler's Germany
 saw rearmament, internal repression, 
CONCENTRATION

 CAMPS, GENOCIDE, attacks on neighboring countries,
 and finally World War II, ending in unconditional
 surrender. Following World War II, Germany lost all
 territories gained during the Nazi period and was
 dismembered, first into Allied occupation zones and
 then into the 
GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and the
 
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY.

Gesell, Arnold Lucius (1880-1961), U.S. child
 psychologist and physician best known for his
 Gesell Development Schedules, stages of development
 against which individual children could be
 measured. His many books on normal child growth,
 drawing on his experience at the Yale Clinic of
 Child Development, made him enormously influential.


Gestapo, the Nazi secret police portion of the SS;
 as such, Gestapo operatives were above whatever law
 still existed in Nazi Germany, being answerable
 only to Heinrich 
HIMMLER and through him to Adolf
 
HITLER.

Getty, J. Paul, III, the 17-year-old grandson of
 oil billionaire and art collector J. Paul Getty,
 who was kidnapped in southern Italy on July 10,
 1973, and released on December 15, 1973, after
 payment of a $2.8 million ransom.

Ghana (Republic of Ghana), formerly the 
GOLD

 COAST and 
BRITISH TOGOLAND. Until independence
 in 1957, the Gold Coast was a British colony.
 Togoland was a German protectorate in 1900; in 1922
 it was split between France and Great Britain,
 British (West) Togoland becoming a 
LEAGUE OF

 NATIONS mandate territory and a 
UNITED NATIONS
 mandate territory after World War II until 1957.
 Ghana's independence movement, led by Kwame
 
NKRUMAH, won independence and 
COMMONWEALTH
 membership on March 6, 1957. Nkrumah became first
 prime minister and in 1960 first president of the
 new nation, then establishing personal control in a
 one-party state until deposed in 1966.

Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe (1901-65), Rumanian
 Communist leader, imprisoned 1933-44, who became
 secretary-general of his party in 1945 and premier
 of Rumania in 1952. At first a hard-line Stalinist,
 he sharply moved away from Soviet control in the
 early 1960s, a policy continued by his successor,
 Nicolae 
CEAUSESCU.

Giap, Vo Nguyen (1912- ), North Vietnamese officer,
 who commanded his country's forces at the siege of
 
DIEN BIEN PHU in 1954, soon becoming defense
 minister and army commander-in-chief and then
 commanding the North Vietnamese army during the
 
VIETNAM WAR.

GI Bill of Rights (GI Bill; 1944), a U.S. law
 providing educational benefits, home and business
 loans, unemployment benefits, and a miscellany of
 other benefits to returned veterans after World War
 II; it became a major postwar readjustment,
 education, and home-building tool.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision establishing the right of
 indigent defendants in state court criminal cases
 to have counsel, thus furthering the ideal of
 equality of all before the law.

Gierek, Edward (1913- ), Polish miner who lived in
 Western Europe during the interwar period, becoming
 a World War II resistance leader in Belgium. He
 returned to Poland in 1948, became a Communist
 Party leader, and during the crisis generated by
 the riots of 1970 succeeded 
WLADISLAW GOMULKA as
 party head and leader of his country. He resigned
 in 1980 during the crisis generated by the 
GDANSK

 LENIN SHIPYARD and other strikes, which led to the
 formation of 
SOLIDARITY.

Gilbert Islands, the former name of 
KIRIBATI
 (Republic of Kiribati), until July 12, 1979, a
 British colony.

Gilbert (September 12-14, 1988), a massive
 Caribbean hurricane that caused enormous damage and
 left an estimated 500,000 homeless in Jamaica,
 caused much damage in the Cayman Islands, and
 killed at least 200 people and left an estimated
 100,000 homeless in Mexico.

Gillars, Mildred, the real name of Nazi broadcaster
 
AXIS SALLY.

Gilmore, Gary Mark (1940-77), convicted Utah
 murderer, who was the first to be executed after
 reinstatement of the death penalty by the U.S.
 Supreme Court after a decade in which no such
 executions had been carried out in the United
 States. His death was described in Norman Mailer's
 Executioner's Song.

Giraud, Henri-Honore (1879-1949), French officer
 who saw service in World War I and the 
RIF WAR
 and was captured by the Germans while commanding
 the French Ninth Army during the Battle of
 
FRANCE, May 1940. He escaped from the Nazis in
 1942, became head of government and head of the
 French army in French North Africa after the
 assassination of Francois 
DARLAN, and in 1943
 shared leadership of the Committee of National
 Liberation with Charles 
DE GAULLE. He lost a
 power struggle against De Gaulle in 1944.

Giscard d'Estaing, Valery (1926- ), French
 administrator and conservative political leader,
 who entered the national assembly as a Gaullist in
 1956, held several cabinet-level economic
 positions, and was president of France from 1974 to
 1981, when he was defeated by socialist Francois
 
MITTERAND.

Gjoa, 
ROALD AMUNDSEN's sloop, used on the first
 voyage along the 
NORTHWEST PASSAGE, north of
 North America, in 1903-06.

Glaser, Donald Arthur (1926- ), U.S. physicist, who
 in 1952 invented the 
BUBBLE CHAMBER, an
 improvement on Charles 
WILSON's 
CLOUD CHAMBER,
 used to track the path of subatomic 
PARTICLES and
 
RADIATION. He won the 1960 Nobel Prize for
 Physics.

glasnost, a Soviet political slogan introduced by
 Mikhail 
GORBACHEV, literally meaning "openness"
 and describing Gorbachev-era Soviet policies
 favoring greater freedom of expression, including
 criticism of Soviet bureaucracy. In a more general
 sense glasnost came to be synonymous with increased
 democracy in the Soviet Union and throughout the
 Communist world. Glasnost and 
PERESTROIKA were
 the main early themes of the Gorbachev era.

Glass, Charles, one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, an ABC-TV news correspondent, who was
 kidnapped on June 17, 1987. He escaped on August
 18, 1987.

Glassboro summit (June 1967), a 2-day meeting at
 Glassboro, New Jersey, between U.S. president
 Lyndon B. 
JOHNSON and U.S.S.R. premier Aleksei N.
 
KOSYGIN, that resulted in some progress toward a
 nuclear nonproliferation treaty.

Glenn, John Herschel, Jr. (1921- ), U.S. aviator
 and astronaut who, on February 20, 1962, in the
 
MERCURY spacecraft Friendship 7, became the first
 American to orbit the Earth. He had earlier been a
 much-decorated pilot in World War II and Korea,
 then a test pilot and a trainee astronaut
 (1959-62). In 1974 he became a Democratic senator
 from Ohio and was later an unsuccessful candidate
 for the presidential nomination.

global village, interconnected world culture that,
 according to Marshall 
MCLUHAN, resulted from the
 20th-century rise of the 
ELECTRONIC media,
 especially 
TELEVISION.

Glomar Challenger, U.S. drilling ship that took
 cores, samples from pipes punched deep into the
 Earth, from the world's seabed as part of the 
DEEP

 SEA DRILLING PROJECT (1968-83), notably in the Red
 Sea, the Galapagos Rift, and the Falkland Plateau,
 searching for information about the geological
 evolution of the Earth, giving much supporting
 evidence for the theory of 
PLATE TECTONICS, and
 locating likely sites for oil deposits.

Glubb, John Bagot (Glubb Pasha; 1897-1986), British
 officer, who saw service in World War I and in Iraq
 (1920-26), then leaving the British army but
 continuing to live in the Middle East. From 1931 to
 1956, he served with the Jordanian army, commanding
 the 
ARAB LEGION (1939-56) and building it into a
 fighting force effective enough to defeat the
 Israelis at Jerusalem and on the 
WEST BANK during
 the 
FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR (ISRAELI WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE), the only Arab force to do so. In
 1956, as anti-British feeling built up in the Arab
 world, he was dismissed by King 
HUSSEIN of
 Jordan.

gluons, subatomic 
PARTICLES that bind together,
 or "glue," other subatomic particles called
 
QUARKS; first observed by Hamburg physicists in
 1979.

Glushko, Valentin (1908-89), U.S.S.R. engineer, who
 created the 
ROCKETS that in 1957 boosted into
 orbit 
SPUTNIK, the world's first artificial
 
SATELLITE, and that same year launched the Soviet
 Union's first 
INTERCONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILE
 (ICBM). As early as 1929 Glushko had developed the
 first electric rocket and the first Soviet
 liquid-propellant rocket. From 1932 he worked
 closely with Sergei 
KOROLEV, chief designer of
 Soviet rockets and spacecraft, whom he succeeded in
 1974. He built 
MIR, which in 1987 became the
 first permanently manned space station.

Goddard, Robert Hutchings (1882-1945), U.S.
 physicist, who became one of the world's foremost
 rocketry pioneers, starting before World War I. In
 1919 he published his classic monograph A Method of
 Reaching Extreme Altitudes, which predicted the
 coming of space flight. Seven years later, on March
 16, 1926, he launched the first liquid-propellant
 rocket. Later recognized as a key figure in the
 history of space flight, his work was ignored and
 often ridiculed during his lifetime, although
 German rocket researchers knew and used it,
 ultimately in the development of the 
V-2 
ROCKET
 missiles of World War II.

Godel, Kurt (1906-78), Austrian-American
 mathematician who, building on but also
 undercutting the work of Bertrand 
RUSSELL and
 Alfred North 
WHITEHEAD, demonstrated in 1931 that
 certainty in any mathematical system is impossible,
 for some axioms will always remain unprovable. His
 work, called Godel's Proof, or the incompletability
 theorem, effectively ended the modern search for
 certainty in mathematics, as Werner 
HEISENBERG'S

 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE had done in physics. From
 1938 Godel worked in the United States at the
 Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New
 Jersey.

Goebbels, Joseph (1897-1945), a failed writer who
 joined the 
NAZI PARTY in 1924, became a party
 journal editor in 1925, and Berlin party leader in
 1926. Within 2 years, he was chief Nazi
 propagandist, and in 1933 he became Nazi propaganda
 minister, in that position becoming chief Nazi
 bookburner. His influence waned during the early
 years of World War II, but he was needed again
 after the tide turned against Germany in 1943. He
 committed suicide, killing his wife and six
 children as well, on May 1, 1945.

Goering, Hermann (1893-1946), German World War I
 flying corps officer, who joined the 
NAZI PARTY
 in 1922 and who was severely wounded during the
 failed 
BEER HALL PUTSCH of 1923, then fleeing
 abroad until 1927. He returned to Germany to become
 a Reichstag deputy in 1928 and in 1932 its Nazi
 president. During the years of power he was second
 only to 
HITLER, who in 1939 declared Goering to
 be his successor. He also became very rich and a
 major art "collector," before and during the war,
 his wealth coming from Jews and others in Germany
 and from confiscation in the conquered nations. In
 the early years of the war he was head of the
 Luftwaffe. Afterward, he was adjudged a major war
 criminal at the 
NUREMBERG TRIALS and sentenced to
 death. He committed suicide in his cell on October
 15, 1946.

Goethals, George Washington (1858-1928), officer in
 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers who oversaw the
 construction of the 
PANAMA CANAL. Having gained
 experience in building several major canals in the
 19th century, Goethals was appointed by President
 Theodore 
ROOSEVELT in 1907 to take over
 construction of the Panama Canal, after an earlier
 French effort had failed. With the help of William
 
GORGAS's successful anti-
YELLOW FEVER campaign,
 Goethals completed the job in 1913, months ahead of
 schedule, and was appointed first governor of the
 
CANAL ZONE. He served as U.S. quartermaster
 general in World War I.

Goetz, Bernhard, the media-dubbed "subway
 vigilante," who found himself in a threatening
 situation on a New York City subway in December
 1984, drew his illegally carried weapon, shot four
 young Black men, and then gave himself up to the
 police. One of the young men was paralyzed
 permanently. The action generated years of legal
 actions, accompanied by an often acrimonious
 national debate on the questions of vigilante
 action, gun control, self-defense, and
 discrimination. In the end Goetz was found guilty
 of carrying a concealed and loaded weapon and was
 acquitted of assault and attempted murder.

Goldberg, Arthur Joseph (1908-89), U.S. labor
 lawyer, who from the late 1930s through 1961
 represented several major labor organizations,
 including the 
CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL

 ORGANIZATIONS (CIO) and the AFL-CIO. He became
 John F. 
KENNEDY's secretary of labor in 1961, and
 a Supreme Court justice in 1962, resigning in 1965
 to become U.S. representive to the 
UNITED NATIONS
 1965-68.

Gold Coast, former name for the West African
 British colony that on March 6, 1957, became part
 of the new nation of 
GHANA, led by Kwame
 
NKRUMAH.

Golden Bough, the seminal work on religion, magic,
 and folklore, published in brief in 1890 but
 expanded to 12 volumes in 1907-15, by 
JAMES

 FRAZER.

Golden Temple assault (June 5-6, 1984), an attack
 by the Indian army on Sikh extremists, led by
 fundamentalist Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, who were
 using the Sikh temple as the headquarters of their
 terrorist operations in the Punjab. Bhindranwale
 and an estimated l,000 of his followers were killed
 in the attack. Sikh separatist violence continued
 in the Punjab. One direct result was the
 assassination of Indian prime minister Indira
 
GANDHI by two of her Sikh bodyguards on October
 31, 1984, an action that further inflamed
 Hindu-Sikh enmities and generated massive anti-Sikh
 riots in India in which thousands of Sikhs were
 killed.

Goldmark, Peter Carl (1906-77), Hungarian-American
 engineer, who made major contributions to the
 
TELEVISION and recording industries. Working with
 CBS laboratories from 1936, Goldmark developed a
 method of producing color television in 1940 that
 became the industry standard in a decade. He also
 invented the long-playing record, in 1948, and in
 the 1950s he developed the scanning device that was
 used on the 
LUNAR ORBITER to send pictures from
 the Moon. Later Goldmark made key contributions to
 the development of video-cassette recording.

Goldwater, Barry Morris (1909- ), U.S. department
 store owner, who was elected to the Phoenix,
 Arizona, city council in 1949 and went on to become
 a five-term Arizona Republican Senator (1953-65,
 1969-87). A conservative, he defeated Nelson
 
ROCKEFELLER for his party's presidential
 nomination in 1964 but lost the election by a wide
 margin to Lyndon B. 
JOHNSON; in 1969 he resumed
 his career in the Senate.

Gompers, Samuel (1850-1924), U.S. labor leader, who
 in 1886 founded and became first president of the
 
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR (AFL) and was its
 president until his death in 1924, except for the
 year 1895. He developed the AFL as a group of
 affiliated craft unions representing their
 skilled-worker members on economic matters, and
 strongly resisted industrial unionism and the
 organization of the unskilled; he also favored
 immigration restriction. He and the AFL advocated
 "pure and simple" unionism, rather than the highly
 political unionism of the 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF

 THE WORLD (IWW) and opposed the 
SOCIALIST PARTY
 or the development of a labor party, as was the
 pattern in many other countries. This set of views
 established the dominant economic pattern in U.S.
 trade unionism, until formation of the 
CONGRESS OF

 INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (CIO) in the mid-1930s,
 and it remained the dominant pattern as regards
 political affiliations.

Gomulka, Wladyslaw (1905-82), Polish Communist
 Party leader, a World War II resistance fighter,
 who in 1945 became first secretary of his party and
 a deputy premier. An advocate of a "Polish road to
 socialism," he was removed from all party posts in
 1949, during the antinationalist purges in Eastern
 Europe that followed the 
YUGOSLAV-SOVIET BREAK of
 1948, and was imprisoned 1951-55. In 1956, during
 the 
POLISH OCTOBER, he was returned to power,
 then embarked on a more liberal, anticollectivist
 course. But it was not enough; unrest redeveloped
 in the mid-1960s as conservatism returned to power
 in the Soviet Union and made itself felt in Poland.
 Gomulka's government encouraged endemic Polish
 anti-Semitism in an attempt to distract its
 opponents and also moved directly against
 dissenters, but it could not curb the unrest;
 Gomulka was replaced by the more conservative
 Edward 
GIEREK in 1970.

Gonzalez Marquez, Felipe (1942- ), Spanish
 socialist leader and labor lawyer, who became a
 leader of the Spanish Socialist Workers Party while
 it was still illegal and prime minister after his
 party's 1982 electoral victory. In office he
 followed a moderate and democratic socialist course
 domestically, took Spain into the 
EUROPEAN COMMON

 MARKET in 1986, and made major contributions to
 the development of renascent Spanish democracy.

Goodall, Jane Van Lawick- (1934- ), British
 ethologist, famed for her studies of chimpanzees in
 East Africa. Inspired by early work with Louis
 
LEAKEY, Goodall worked from 1960 at the Gombe
 Stream Game Reserve in Tanzania (then Tanganyika),
 closely observing the primates in their natural
 habitat, gaining their confidence and coming to
 know them individually. Among other things, she
 learned that chimpanzees are not strict vegetarians
 and that they can make simple tools. From 1962
 Dutch wildlife photographer Hugo Van Lawick, later
 her husband, took many of the photographs and
 documentary films that made her famous worldwide.


Goodman, Andrew, young civil rights worker, who
 with James 
CHANEY and Michael 
SCHWERNER was
 murdered in Neshoba County, Mississippi, in June
 1964, in the Mississippi civil rights murders.

Goodman, Robert, U.S. Air Force lieutenant, shot
 down on December 4, 1983, while attacking Syrian
 positions in Lebanon's Bekaa Valley. Two planes
 were shot down; one crew escaped capture, but
 Goodman's navigator was killed, and he was
 captured. He was released by President 
HAFEZ

 ASSAD of Syria, on January 3, 1984, after a direct
 appeal from Jesse 
JACKSON.

Good Neighbor Policy, the Latin American foreign
 policy of the United States as expressed by
 Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT in 1933, eschewing U.S.
 dominance over its Latin American neighbors. It
 resulted in abrogation of the 
PLATT AMENDMENT in
 1934, completion of the American withdrawal from
 Haiti in 1935, and the end of Panama's protectorate
 status by the treaty of 1936.

Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich (1931- ), Soviet
 political leader, who swiftly rose in party and
 government, becoming a Central Committee member in
 1971, agriculture minister 1978-85, a member of the
 Politburo in 1980, and general secretary of his
 party and leader of the Soviet Union in March 1985.
 In the last position he put into play a massive set
 of internal reforms, including major attempts to
 decentralize the Soviet economic system and
 introduce many elements of a market economy,
 positive encouragement of open discussion and
 criticism, and a restructuring of his country's
 political system, though it is still considerably
 short of Western-style democracy. Internationally,
 his initiatives did a great deal to move the Soviet
 Union and the United States toward ending decades
 of 
COLD WAR. He initiated a series of meetings
 with U.S. president Ronald 
REAGAN, in which the
 major arms cuts of the 1987 
INF TREATY and a
 series of moves aimed at ending regional conflicts
 were developed, and in early 1989 he completed the
 withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan. In
 May 1989, after 30 years of antagonism, he visited
 and normalized relations with China. During 1989
 and 1990, his initiatives brought about massive
 political changes in Eastern Europe, including free
 elections and a non-communist government in Poland,
 neutralization of the 
BERLIN WALL, new
 governments in Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
 Hungary, and Bulgaria, and the 
RUMANIAN

 REVOLUTION. In early 1990, he caused the Central
 Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet
 Union to renounce the guaranteed leading role of
 the Communist Party, until then the central tenet
 of Leninism.

Gordimer, Nadine (1923- ), South African writer,
 most noted for her short stories; a White whose
 work shows South Africans and their society as
 tremendously damaged by racism and its offspring,
 
APARTHEID.

Gorgas, William Crawford (1854-1920), U.S.
 physician, who supervised the mosquito control
 program in Panama, 1904-14, allowing the 
PANAMA

 CANAL to be constructed without widespread 
YELLOW

 FEVER deaths. In Havana, Cuba, in 1900, in the
 wake of the Spanish-American War, Walter 
REED
 recognized that mosquitoes were causing yellow
 fever. Gorgas then developed a mosquito-eradication
 campaign, which he later applied to Panama. As
 surgeon general of the army, he organized the
 mobilization of medical resources for World War I.


Gorky, Maxim (Aleksey Maximovich Pyeshkov;
 1868-1936) Soviet writer and revolutionary; with
 such works as The Lower Depths (1902), and Mother
 (1907), he established himself as a major writer
 and helped develop the revolutionary movement in
 the period before the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION. He
 became an active revolutionary in the late 1880s,
 was imprisoned after the 1905 revolution, and went
 into exile abroad, returning to Russia in 1913.
 After the establishment of the Soviet government,
 as a leading Communist and sometime friend of Lenin
 he saved many intellectuals from persecution, while
 himself becoming active in Soviet cultural affairs.
 He was abroad 1921-31, in apparent disagreement
 with the government, and returned to the Soviet
 Union in 1929, then becoming first president of the
 government-dominated Union of Soviet Writers. He
 died in 1936, possibly of natural causes and
 possibly assassinated by the 
STALIN government,
 which was then moving into the 
GREAT PURGE
 period.

Gorlice-Tarnow Breakthrough (May-December 1915),
 World War I push in which German and Austrian
 armies in Poland broke through on the
 Russian-Polish front, ultimately advancing 300
 miles against collapsing Russian forces and taking
 Przemysl, Lemberg, Warsaw, Brest-Litovsk, Grodno,
 and Vilna, though autumn rains and Russian
 resistance finally stopped their advance.

Gossamer Albatross, aircraft used to make the first
 human-powered flight across the English Channel, in
 1979, with 26-year-old California biologist Bryan
 Allen pedaling to work the propeller in the craft's
 tail.

Gottwald, Klement (1896-1953), Czech Communist
 party leader, a founder of his party in 1921 and a
 leading Czech Communist of the interwar period.
 Returning home after spending World War II in the
 Soviet Union, he was deputy premier and then
 premier before the Czech coup of 1948 and became
 the first Communist president of Czechoslovakia.
 His rule came at the end of the 
STALIN era and
 included the 1952 
SLANSKY SHOW TRIALS and
 executions.

Gowon, Yakubu (1934- ), Nigerian officer, who took
 power in July 1966 after a series of coups and
 countercoups, mainly by northern Moslems, that had
 resulted in the killing of two former prime
 ministers and a massacre of southern Christian and
 animist Ibos. Gowon, a Christian, led the Nigerian
 government during the ensuing 
NIGERIA-BIAFRA CIVIL

 WAR (1967-70), in which an estimated 1.5-2 million
 died. He was overthrown by a coup in 1975 while he
 was abroad and went into exile.

Graf Spee, German pocket battleship active in the
 South Atlantic early in World War II; it was badly
 damaged at the December 1939 
BATTLE OF THE RIVER

 PLATE and was shortly thereafter sunk by its
 captain outside the harbor of Montevideo, Uruguay.


Graham, William Franklin "Billy" (1918- ), U.S.
 fundamentalist Protestant minister, a radio and
 television evangelist and political conservative
 who from the late 1940s conducted Christian
 evangelical crusades throughout the world,
 preaching directly to millions and broadcasting to
 hundreds of millions more, including audiences in
 the Soviet Union.

grain embargo, the 1980 embargo on all grain
 shipments from the United States to the Soviet
 Union imposed by U.S. president Jimmy 
CARTER in
 early 1980 after the late 1979 Soviet invasion of
 
AFGHANISTAN. It was lifted by President Ronald
 
REAGAN in April 1981.

Gramm-Rudman Act, U.S. law passed in December 1986,
 requiring the automatic across-the-board cutting of
 most budget items, including defense and most
 domestic programs, when specified budgetary goals
 are not met; an attempt to reduce the enormous
 national debt increases of the 
REAGAN era, with
 the stated goal of producing a balanced budget by
 1991.

Gramsci, Antonio (1891-1937), Italian socialist
 theoretician, who led the left wing of the
 Socialist Party into the Italian Communist Party in
 1921. His party was outlawed by the fascists, and
 he was imprisoned (1926-37), being released to die
 soon after.

Grand Mosque incident (July 31, 1987), battle at
 Mecca's Grand Mosque, between thousands of
 pro-
KHOMEINI Iranian pilgrims and Saudi Arabian
 police, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of
 pilgrims, many of them innocent bystanders.

Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Palestinian Arab leader
 Haj Amin al 
HUSSEINI.

grand unification theory (GUT), alternate name for
 
UNIFIED FIELD THEORY.

Great Depression, the sharp worldwide decline in
 trade, production, employment, and financial
 stability that began with the U.S. stock market
 
CRASH of October 1929. The effects of the crash
 were greatly enhanced by the American 
SMOOT-HAWLEY

 TARIFF and other protective tariff walls thrown up
 by many nations. The Great Depression grew into a
 massive crisis that fed the growth of fascism and
 militarism and for a time threatened the
 governmental and social systems of the United
 States and the other major Western democracies.
 Economic revival and amelioration of the social
 consequences of the Depression began with Franklin
 Delano 
ROOSEVELT'S NEW DEAL in 1933. With the New
 Deal came the beginning of a social service safety
 net in the United States, the unionization of the
 mass production industries, and the will to
 ultimately defeat German fascism and Japanese
 militarism in World War II. The American economy
 rebounded considerably 1933-37, seriously sagged
 again in 1937, picked up again with the advent of
 the European war in 1939, and went into overdrive
 to meet war production needs after December 1941.


Great Idaho Fire (August 10-21, 1910), a massive
 forest fire that burned out of control in Idaho's
 Bitterroot Mountains despite the efforts of several
 thousands of firefighters, including federal
 troops. It burned out over 3 million acres, killing
 eight people; it was one of a series of major fires
 throughout western North America that summer.

Great Imposter, the media-generated name of
 Ferdinand 
DEMARA, who posed as a professional in
 many occupations.

Great Leap Forward, the massive, failed nationwide
 industrialization campaign initiated by 
MAO

 ZEDONG in 1958 and 1959. The campaign featured the
 development of large, labor-intensive rural and
 urban communes that owned all of the land and means
 of production and used ideological exhortation
 rather than economic incentives. One of the chief
 objectives of the campaign was the nationwide
 production of such low-quality industrial products
 as the steel produced in backyard furnaces, which
 could not be used in modern industry. The campaign
 enormously damaged the fragile Chinese economy;
 within 2 years it was seen to be a failure and was
 abandoned in 1960 and 1961.

Great Purge (1934-39), a long, nationwide series of
 show trials and executions, resulting in the
 killing of tens of thousands of the key people in
 the Soviet Union's main elites; it was begun by
 Joseph 
STALIN, who used as a pretext the
 assassination of Leningrad Communist party leader
 Sergei 
KIROV in 1934. In the course of the purge
 the nation lost most of its top military leaders,
 including Marshal Mikhail 
TUKHACHEVSKY, and most
 of the Soviet officer corps; some were reclaimed
 from labor camps when the Germans struck in 1940.
 It also lost most of its leading Communists,
 including such old allies and colleagues of Stalin
 as Lev 
KAMENEV, Grigori 
ZINOVIEV, and Nicolai
 
BUKHARIN, along with many thousands of lower
 level Communist officials throughout the country.


Great Society, a slogan put forward by U.S.
 president Lyndon B. 
JOHNSON in his Madison Square
 Garden speech of October 31, 1964, as a basis for
 the wide range of social welfare legislation he
 then initiated, including the introduction of
 
MEDICARE and 
MEDICAID, increased aid to
 education, subsidized housing, and a series of 
WAR

 ON POVERTY programs.

Great War (1914-18), alternate name for 
WORLD WAR

 I, the major international conflict of the early
 20th century.

Greece, invasion of (October 1940-April 1941),
 World War II attack on Greece, starting with
 Italian forces moving out of Albania on October 28,
 1940, and being immediately defeated. A Greek
 offensive in late November moved into Albania, with
 heavy Italian losses. But on April 6, 1941, German
 forces entered this part of the war, attacking
 Yugoslavia and Greece. They took both countries in
 the same month; Yugoslavia fell in 11 days, Greece
 in 17 days, the Greek army surrendering on April 23
 with over 50,000 casualties and over 250,000
 prisoners taken. The British had sent four
 divisions to Greece in March; of these, 43,000 were
 evacuated by sea (April 24-27), and there were
 12,000 British casualties.

Greek Civil War (1946-49), conflict following World
 War II. Greek Communist forces, operating out of
 Albania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia, took much of
 northern Greece and made substantial gains
 throughout the country, beginning in May 1946. In
 March 1947 the United States, pursuant to the
 
TRUMAN DOCTRINE, began supplying large quantities
 of military assistance to the Greek government, and
 both Great Britain and the United States sent
 military advisers. In early 1948 the government's
 army began to regain lost ground, going over to the
 offensive as Yugoslav aid to the insurgents dried
 up after the 
YUGOSLAV-SOVIET BREAK in mid-1948.
 In the summer of 1949 Greek army forces took Mount
 Grammos, essentially ending the war, although
 guerrilla war continued through mid-October. This
 was the first major armed conflict of the 
COLD

 WAR.

Greek colonels' coup, the Greek military coup of
 April 21, 1967, which brought a 7-year-long
 military government to power, led by army colonels
 George 
PAPADAPOULOS and Stylianos Pattakos. Their
 repressive government was known as the "Greek
 Colonels government."

Greek-Turkish War (1920-22), conflict following
 World War I. Greek forces established a base at
 Smyrna in 1919, a city they then acquired the right
 to administer by the terms of the 1920 Treaty of
 
SEVRES. In late 1920 the Greeks moved east out of
 Smyrna in an attempt to conquer much of western
 Turkey, and from then until August 1921 they fought
 a series of battles with Turkish forces led by
 Mustapha Kemal (later 
ATATURK) as they moved east
 to Sakkaria. After an inconclusive battle at
 Sakkaria, in late August the somewhat overextended
 Greeks withdrew; they were then smashed by a strong
 Turkish counteroffensive, and fled back to Smyrna.
 The Turks took the city, massacring tens of
 thousands of Greek soldiers and civilians. In
 victory, Kemal deposed the last Ottoman Caliph,
 forced replacement of the Treaty of Sevres with the
 much more favorable Treaty of 
LAUSANNE, and
 established the Turkish Republic with himself as
 first president.

Green, William (1873-1952), U.S. coal miner, who
 became a United Mine Workers official in 1900,
 thereafter pursuing a career as a trade union
 leader. In 1924, he succeeded Samuel 
GOMPERS as
 president of the 
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR
 (AFL) and held that position until his death,
 undeviatingly pursuing craft union economic aims,
 opposing the formation of the 
CONGRESS OF

 INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (CIO) in the 1930s, and
 resisting labor union political affiliation.

Greenham Common, the site of a U.S. Air Force base
 in Great Britain, and of periodic antinuclear
 encampments organized by British peace movement
 women in the early 1980s to protest the deployment
 of U.S. nuclear arms in Great Britain.

greenhouse effect, warming of the Earth's
 atmosphere as human activities, especially the
 burning of 
FOSSIL FUELS, increase carbon dioxide
 in the air. This then traps 
INFRARED RADIATION
 from the Sun, much as a greenhouse's glass covering
 does. The idea was first suggested in 1938 by
 British engineer G. S. Callendar. By the mid-1960s
 there were clear warnings of such global warming,
 with its major potential long-term effects,
 including melting of ice caps and rising of the
 world's sea level, but little counter-action was
 taken.

Greenlease kidnapping, the September 28, 1953,
 kidnapping-murder of 6-year-old Bobby Greenlease by
 Bonnie Brown 
HEADY and Carl Austin 
HALL; both
 were executed on December 18, 1953.

Green movement, in a narrowly political sense the
 development of several European political parties
 concerned in their early stages of development
 primarily with environmental matters, which began
 in the late 1970s, and emerged most visibly with
 organization of the West German 
GREEN PARTY in
 1980. Later such parties tended to widen their
 concerns to include a wide range of other political
 issues, many of them only remotely connected with
 ecological matters. In a wider sense the Green
 movement has meant the emergence of enormous
 concern about environmental damage, especially in
 the developed countries; with that concern came
 great media attention, the formation and
 strengthening of hundreds of environmental
 organizations, expressions of concern by public
 officials, and some concerted international action.


Green Party (the Greens), German Federal Republic
 political party and movement organized in 1980
 largely on a ecological preservation-antinuclear
 platform. The party achieved some parliamentary
 representation but was influential far beyond its
 parliamentary strength, mounting major
 demonstrations throughout the Republic and
 generating the formation of similarly oriented
 parties in other European countries as part of a
 wider 
GREEN MOVEMENT.

green revolution, development and planting in
 undeveloped countries of hardy, high-yield grains,
 suitable to a wide range of climates, to ease
 chronic hunger. From 1944 U.S. agricultural
 scientist Norman 
BORLAUG worked in Mexico, under
 Rockefeller Foundation auspices, to develop just
 such types of crops, which were later planted
 widely in other undeveloped countries in the
 mid-1960s and after. Though heavily dependent on
 irrigation and pesticides, these grains largely
 ended actual food shortages in many countries, but
 significant distribution problems remained,
 frustrating early hopes of an easy solution to
 social problems.

Greenspan, Alan (1926- ), U.S. economist and
 consultant, who advised presidents 
NIXON and
 
FORD on economic matters and was appointed to
 succeed Paul Volcker as chairman of the Federal
 Reserve Board in June 1987. An advocate of free
 market competition, his main concern during his
 early period at the Federal Reserve was the control
 of incipient inflation through manipulation of
 interest rates and money supply.

Gregg v. Georgia (1976), a landmark U.S. Supreme
 Court decision clearly reinstating the right of
 states to enforce capital punishment laws; after
 this decision, the killing of prisoners by law was
 resumed in the United States.

Grenada, until 1974 a British colony, although
 internal autonomy was granted in 1967. Independence
 and Commonwealth membership came on February 7,
 1974. The new government, led by prime minister
 Eric M. Gairy, was deposed by an opposition coup in
 March 1979, which set up a Marxist-oriented state
 led by Maurice Bishop. In October 13, 1983, Bishop
 was arrested by his internal opposition and was
 killed on October 19. On October 25, U.S. forces
 invaded and quickly took the country in the brief
 
GRENADA WAR, reestablishing democratic rule.

Grenada War (October 1983), small-scale U.S.
 invasion of Marxist-dominated Grenada, halting
 construction of a Cuban base on the island.
 Invading U.S. forces, supplemented by token forces
 from other Caribbean countries, took Grenada in
 less than 3 days, defeating Grenadan forces and a
 party of Cuban combat engineers. A new government
 was then installed.

Grew, Joseph Clark (1880-1965), U.S. career
 diplomat, who became ambassador to Japan in 1932
 and throughout the late 1930s repeatedly warned of
 impending Japanese-American armed conflict,
 specifically warning of a possible attack on 
PEARL

 HARBOR early in 1941. He and his staff were
 interned in Japan until late 1944.

Grey, Edward, British foreign secretary, 1905-16,
 who was largely responsible for building the series
 of alliances that constituted the Allied side
 during the run-up to World War I, taking Great
 Britain to war; known for his comment that the
 "Lamps are going out all over Europe."

Grissom, Virgil I. "Gus" (1926-67), U.S. astronaut,
 who made the second suborbital 
MERCURY space
 flight on July 21, 1961, and made a three-orbit
 flight in a 
GEMINI spacecraft with John Young on
 March 23, 1965; he was killed on January 27, 1967,
 along with Edward H. White II and Roger B. Chaffee,
 when fire broke out in their 
APOLLO spacecraft
 during a countdown rehearsal.

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision, stating that the right to
 privacy included the right of Planned Parenthood
 counselors to provide contraceptive information to
 married couples, and the right of those couples to
 receive and act on that advice without the
 interference of government.

Grivas, George (1898-1974), Greek Cypriot soldier,
 a World War II resistance fighter, who led Cypriot
 guerrilla forces from 1955 until the achievement of
 independence for Cyprus in 1959. He continued to
 favor union with Greece, however, and took part in
 guerrilla warfare against the Cypriot government,
 until his death.

Gromyko, Andrei Andreyevich (1909-1989), Soviet
 economist and diplomat, who was ambassador to the
 United States 1943-46, 
UNITED NATIONS delegation
 head 1946-48, and ambassador to Great Britain
 1952-53. A deputy foreign minister from 1946, he
 was foreign minister 1957-85, functioning for most
 of the 
COLD WAR as his country's notably
 grim-visaged chief diplomat and during the early
 1980s as a major foreign policymaker as well. As
 leadership passed to new hands during the
 
GORBACHEV era, in 1985 Gromyko moved into the
 then largely ceremonial position of Soviet
 president, retiring in 1988.

Groves, Leslie Richard (1896-1970), U.S. Army
 general, who from 1942 headed the Manhattan
 District of the Army Corps of Engineers, better
 known as the 
MANHATTAN PROJECT, assigned to
 produce an 
ATOMIC BOMB.

Guadalcanal, Battle of (August 1942-February 1943),
 fighting following U.S. landings on the
 Japanese-held island of Guadalcanal, beginning on
 August 7, 1942, with the Americans capturing the
 airport, which they named Henderson Field. Both
 sides skirmished and built their strength until
 mid-September, the Japanese then attacking the
 airfield and losing a division-size engagement at
 Bloody Ridge. In late October heavy Japanese
 assaults again failed to take the airfield, and
 both sides continued their buildups. On January 10,
 U.S. forces, by then much stronger, went on the
 offensive, driving the Japanese from the island by
 early February; the remaining Japanese were
 evacuated by sea.

Guam, Battle of (December 10, 1941), early World
 War II attack on the small Guam garrison by
 Japanese forces, which took the island.

Guam, Battle of (July-August, 1944), World War II
 amphibious landings in late July, followed by a
 2-week hand-to-hand battle for the Pacific island
 by its Japanese defenders and much stronger U.S.
 Marine and army units. Most of the island's 10,000
 defenders chose to fight to the death, rather than
 surrender.

Guatemala City earthquake (February 4, 1976), an
 earthquake that destroyed much of the capital city
 and many other populated places in central
 Guatemala, killing an estimated 20,000-25,000
 people.

Guatemalan Civil War (June 1954- ), conflict that
 began with the overthrow of the elected government
 of President Jacobo 
ARBENZ by forces led by
 Carlos Castillo Armas and aided by the United
 States, which charged the Arbenz government with
 being Communist-influenced. Thirty-five years of
 low-level guerrilla warfare followed, as did
 left-wing assassinations and right-wing 
DEATH

 SQUAD massacres.

Guderian, Heinz (1888-1954), German officer, who
 saw service in World War I and became chief German
 
TANK corps commander and a major advocate of
 
BLITZKRIEG tactics during the interwar period.
 His armored divisions led the attack on Poland in
 1939, and in 1940 made the decisive breakthrough at
 Sedan that led to the fall of France. He was not as
 successful on the Russian front, being relieved of
 his command in 1941, coming back after the defeat
 at 
STALINGRAD, and again being relieved early in
 1945.

Guernica bombing (1937), the heavy German bombing
 of the nonmilitary objective that was the
 defenseless city of Guernica, in northern Spain
 during the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR, an act that
 provoked worldwide protest, inspired Pablo
 Picasso's Guernica painting, and was seen by many
 as a terrible augury of much that was yet to
 come-and did.

Guevara, Che (Ernesto Guevara de la Serna;
 1928-67), Latin-American revolutionary, born in
 Argentina, who in 1955 joined Fidel 
CASTRO in
 Mexico, went to Cuba with Castro in 1956, and
 became a key guerrilla leader during the 
CUBAN

 REVOLUTION. A Marxist, he played a major role in
 developing the ideology of the revolution, his work
 on guerrilla warfare becoming required reading for
 leftist revolutionaries in many countries. He also
 held many cabinet-level posts in the new Cuban
 government. In 1966, seeking to foster revolution
 throughout Latin America, he left Cuba and
 developed a small guerrilla movement in Bolivia,
 but was killed after being captured by the Bolivian
 government.

guided missile, 
ROCKET containing one or more
 explosive warheads, often nuclear, and capable of
 being directed toward a target after launching,
 rather than having a preset path. The idea of an
 "aerial torpedo" was conceived by
 turn-of-the-century Swedish scientist Wilhelm Unge,
 coming to pass with the World War II 
V-2 BOMBS
 and later the even more deadly 
INTERCONTINENTAL

 BALLISTIC MISSILES (ICBMs).

Guinea (Republic of Guinea), until 1958 a French
 colony. On October 2, 1958, after the emergence of
 a powerful independence movement, led by Ahmed
 Sekou 
TOURE, Guinea became an independent state ,
 with Toure as its first president; he remained
 president of his one-party state until his death on
 March 25, 1984.

Guinea-Bissau (Republic of Guinea-Bissau), until
 1974, a Portuguese colony known as Portuguese
 Guinea. It gained independence on September 10,
 1974, after a long guerrilla war led by Amilcar
 Cabral, who was assassinated in 1973; his brother,
 Luis de Almeida Cabral, became the first president
 of Guinea-Bissau. Luis Cabral was deposed by the
 military coup of November 14, 1980, which brought
 President Joao Bernardo Viera to power.

Guise, Battle of (August 29, 1914), engagement
 after the World War I Battles of the 
FRONTIERS,
 in which French forces retreating south before the
 German advance counterattacked at Guise and held
 the Germans back for 36 hours, but were then forced
 to resume their retreat.

Gulf War, an alternate name for the 
IRAN-IRAQ WAR
 of 1980-88.

Gustav Line, the German defensive line running
 across Italy south of Rome during the Italian
 campaign of 1943-44. The Germans held the line
 until May 1944; Allied troops then broke through,
 to link up with Allied forces moving out of the
 
ANZIO beachhead north of the line.

GUT, acronym for 
Grand 
Unification 
Theory, an
 alternate name for 
UNIFIED FIELD THEORY.

Guyana (Cooperative Republic of Guyana), until
 1966, a British colony; it became an independent
 state and 
COMMONWEALTH member on May 26, 1966,
 and was led from 1966 until his death in 1985 by
 Forbes 
BURNHAM.

Haakon VII (1872-1957), king of Norway (1905-57),
 who during World War II led his country's
 London-based government-in-exile, serving as a
 focus for continuing Norwegian resistance.

Habash, George (1925- ), Palestinian Christian
 doctor, a founder in the 1950s of the Arab
 Nationalist Movement organization and in 1969 of
 the 
POPULAR FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF PALESTINE
 (PFLP), a Marxist-oriented guerrilla organization
 deeply involved in terrorist operations. Although
 long an opponent of the mainstream 
PALESTINE

 LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO) and of Yasir
 
ARAFAT, Habash brought his organization back into
 the PLO in 1987, after several years of
 estrangement. In 1988 he publicly disavowed further
 acts of terrorism, though still being accused by
 the Israelis and others of continuing complicity on
 terrorist acts.

Haganah, originally a paramilitary organization
 formed by Palestinian Jews in 1920; it grew into an
 underground army during the 1920s and 1930s, from
 1937 engaging in a covert guerrilla war with
 Palestinian Arab paramilitary forces. During World
 War II, some Haganah soldiers fought as individuals
 with British forces, and others fought in their own
 
PALMACH commando units with the British. The
 Haganah opposed the terrorist tactics of the 
IRGUN

 ZVAI LEUMI, led by Menachim 
BEGIN, and the
 
STERN GANG. During the 
ISRAELI WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE (FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR), the Haganah
 became the nucleus of what became the Israeli army,
 afterward forcing the terrorist groups to disband
 and either join the Israeli armed forces as
 individuals or go into civilian life.

Haig, Alexander Meigs, Jr. (1924- ), U.S. officer,
 who saw service in Vietnam, became a military
 adviser to Henry 
KISSINGER in 1968, an assistant
 and key 
VIETNAM WAR adviser to Richard M. 
NIXON
 during the concluding years of the war, and chief
 of Nixon's White House staff 1973-74. He was
 commander of the 
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY

 ORGANIZATION (NATO) 1975-79. He was Ronald
 
REAGAN'S secretary of state 1981-82, and an
 unsuccessful candidate for the Republican
 presidential nomination in 1988.

Haig, Douglas (1861-1928), British general and
 later field marshal, who commanded British forces
 in France from 1915 until the end of World War I.
 He has been strongly criticized for causing
 enormous British losses by sending British infantry
 against entrenched German machine gun positions at
 the first Battle of the 
SOMME in 1916, and at the
 Third Battle of 
YPRES, also called
 
PASSCHENDAELE, in 1917. On the Somme, the British
 gained 8 miles and suffered an estimated 420,000
 casualties. At Passchendaele, the British advanced
 5 miles and suffered an estimated 320,000
 casualties.

Haight-Ashbury, the San Francisco neighborhood that
 became a 
COUNTERCULTURE center and symbol in the
 1960s.

Haile Selassie I (Ras Tafari; 1892-1975), Ethiopian
 political leader, who became regent (1916-28), king
 (1928-30), and emperor (1930-74). He was a reformer
 who took Ethiopia into the League of Nations,
 abolished slavery, and began a many-faceted
 national modernization program. Italian forces
 invaded his country in 1935, and took Addis Ababa
 in May 1936. He appealed to the 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 unsuccessfully in June, then went into exile until
 Allied forces liberated Ethiopia in 1941. During
 the postwar period he continued to develop reform
 programs, also annexing Eritrea with United Nations
 support. But severe economic and social problems in
 the early 1970s made him vulnerable to an army coup
 in September 1974, followed by house arrest until
 his death in August 1975.

Haiphong, a major North Vietnamese port city that
 was heavily bombed by U.S. forces, 1965-68, during
 the 
VIETNAM WAR. Haiphong harbor was also mined
 by U.S. forces, at the time a highly controversial
 
NIXON administration decision.

Haitian Revolution (November 1985-February 1986),
 the sequence of events and pressures that toppled
 the weak Jean-Claude Duvalier regime, including
 major demonstrations, student boycotts, and intense
 U.S. and French pressure. Duvalier fled the country
 on February 7, ushering in two years of ultimately
 unsuccessful attempts to bring democracy to Haiti,
 which ended for a time with the military coup of
 June 1988.

Hakim, Albert, U.S. businessman who, with his
 partner, retired general Richard V. 
SECORD,
 became a figure in the 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR,
 allegedly being deeply involved in the
 arms-for-hostages and Nicaraguan Contra arms supply
 arrangements; in March 1988 he was indicted in
 connection with the scandal.

Hakodate fire (March 22, 1934), a fire that
 destroyed the city of Hakodate, Japan, killing an
 estimated 1,500 people and injuring at least l,000.


Haldane, John Burdon Sanderson (1897-1964), British
 geneticist, who did key work in population genetics
 and evolution; also a writer whose works, such as
 Science and Ethics (1928), influenced other
 scientists and a wider audience. Disenchanted both
 with Marxism after 
LYSENKO'S rise and with
 British politics, he became a citizen of India
 after 1957.

Haldeman, Harry Robbins "Bob" (1926- ), U.S.
 political administrator, a campaign aide to Richard
 
NIXON during the 1960s, and Nixon's 1968 campaign
 manager. He was White House chief of staff 1969-73,
 later became heavily involved in the 
WATERGATE

 SCANDAL, and resigned his White House post on
 April 30, 1973. In 1974 he was convicted on
 Watergate-connected charges and was subsequently
 imprisoned for 18 months.

Halder, Franz (1884-1972), German staff officer,
 who saw service in World War I and was chief of the
 German general staff 1938-42, being dismissed by
 Hitler after predicting the Russian
 counteroffensive at 
STALINGRAD. He was arrested
 and imprisoned after the failed 1944 army plot to
 assassinate Hitler and spent the balance of the war
 in a 
CONCENTRATION CAMP.

half-life, length of time it takes for half of a
 given amount of a 
RADIOACTIVE element to decay;
 recognized and named by Ernest 
RUTHERFORD in the
 early 1900s. In the atomic age, half-life has
 become a crucial figure in calculating when waste
 products from 
NUCLEAR REACTORS or 
FALLOUT from
 nuclear explosions will no longer be dangerous to
 living beings. It is also used in 
RADIOCARBON

 DATING to show the age of rocks or archaeological
 artifacts.

Halifax (Lord Halifax, Edward Wood; 1881-1959),
 British Conservative MP 1910-25, who was viceroy of
 India 1925-31, succeeded Anthony 
EDEN as
 
CHAMBERLAIN'S foreign minister in 1938, and was
 closely associated with Chamberlain's 
APPEASEMENT
 policy. He was Chamberlain's preferred successor
 but was passed over in favor of Winston
 
CHURCHILL. He was ambassador to the United States
 1941-46.

Halifax Harbor explosion (December 6, 1917), an
 explosion aboard a munitions ship on fire in the
 Canadian harbor of Halifax, Nova Scotia, that
 touched off munition stocks on shore, killing more
 than 1,600 people, injuring approximately 6,000
 more, and leveling much of the harbor area.

Hall, Carl Austin, and Bonnie 
HEADY, the
 kidnap-murderers of 6-year-old Bobby Greenlease, at
 Kansas City, Missouri, on September 28, 1953.

Hall, Fawn, U.S. government employee, secretary to
 Oliver 
NORTH, who became a figure in the
 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR and who testified at the
 1988-1989 trial of Oliver 
NORTH that she had
 helped him shred and conceal government documents.


Halley's Comet, one of the brightest periodic
 comets, named for Edmond Halley who, after its 1682
 sighting, predicted its regular return; the comet
 generated enormous popular interest on its arrival
 in 1910 and again in 1986, when both the United
 States and the Soviet Union sent missions to pass
 through the comet's tail, the Soviet probe making
 the closest approach.

Hall-Mills case, the killing of the Reverend Edward
 Wheeler Hall and Mrs. Eleanor Mills, whose bodies
 were found on September 16, 1922, at New Brunswick,
 New Jersey; both had been murdered. Love letters
 from Mrs. Mills to Mr. Hall were scattered about
 their bodies, and these were widely reprinted and
 discussed in the press. No indictments occurred
 until 1926, when, after the New York Daily Mirror
 claimed discovery of a new witness, Hall's wife,
 Mrs. Frances Stevens Hall, and her two brothers
 were indicted for the murders. After a trial that
 received a great deal of press coverage, the
 defendants were quickly acquitted.

hallucinogenic drugs, mind-altering drugs such as
 
LSD or mescaline, often called psychedelic
 (mind-manifesting) drugs. From the mid-1950s many
 professionals, especially in psychology and
 psychiatry, explored such drugs, some seeking a
 natural biochemical cause for mental disorders such
 as schizophrenia, others hoping to expand the
 mind's possibilities through drugs. But by the
 mid-1960s, as the dangers of such drugs became
 clear, their use was restricted, though many in the
 
COUNTERCULTURE continued to obtain them on the
 black market.

Halsey, William Frederick, Jr. (1882-1959), U.S.
 naval officer, who saw service in World War I,
 became a pilot and aircraft carrier commander
 during the interwar period, and was a vice-admiral
 at sea commanding the carrier Enterprise when
 
PEARL HARBOR was attacked. He became South
 Pacific commander late in 1942, supervising the
 island-hopping American invasion campaign across
 the central Pacific until mid-1944, and then going
 back to sea as commander of the Third Fleet, which
 played a major role in the invasion of the
 Philippines and the air attack on the Japanese
 mainland.

Hamaguchi Osachi (1870-1931), Japanese political
 leader, who became Japanese prime minister in 1929;
 he was shot by a rightist in 1930 and later died.


Hamburg bombings, a series of World War II Allied
 raids in 1943-44, some of which produced firestorms
 and leveled much of Hamburg, killing an estimated
 50,000 Germans.

Hamburger Hill, Battle of (May 1969), a costly U.S.
 
VIETNAM WAR assault on mountain positions near
 the Laotian border, in which American forces in
 regimental strength eventually dislodged North
 Vietnamese forces, which retreated into Laos. To
 Vietnam War opponents, the assault, which was
 highly publicized in the American media, seemed a
 waste of lives and symbolic of American involvement
 in the war; to those supporting the war the assault
 seemed a heroic victory.

Hamer, Fannie Lou (1917-77), U.S. political leader,
 a Mississippi sharecropper who became a leading
 southern Black activist in the 1960s 
CIVIL RIGHTS

 MOVEMENT and a co-founder of the 
MISSISSIPPI

 FREEDOM DEMOCRATIC PARTY, which challenged
 southern Democratic party racist practices at the
 1964 Democratic National Convention, successfully
 challenged the seating of the regular state
 delegates at the 1968 convention, and was seated at
 the 1972 convention.

Hammarskjold, Dag (1905-61), Swedish diplomat,
 political economist, and career government
 official, who was head of the Swedish 
UNITED

 NATIONS delegation 1952-53, and second
 secretary-general of the UN 1953-61. He played a
 major role in concluding the 
SUEZ CRISIS of 1956,
 with creation of the first UN Emergency Force to
 keep peace in the area. He mediated in Lebanon
 during the late 1950s, and created substantial UN
 peacekeeping forces in the Congo during 1960-61. He
 died in an airplane crash while on his way to
 attempt to negotiate peace in the Congo, and was
 awarded a posthumous Nobel Peace Prize in 1961.

Hands Across America (May 25, 1986), U.S. privately
 sponsored relief project aimed at raising money for
 the poor and homeless in the United States, in
 which an estimated 6 million people linked hands to
 form a human chain across the United States, from
 Long Beach, California, to New York City.

Hankow, Fall of (October 25, 1938), the fall of the
 provisional Chinese capital to advancing Japanese
 troops, after heavy fighting along the Yangtze
 River, forcing removal of the Chinese capital to
 Chungking.

Hanoi Christmas bombing (December 18-19, 1972), the
 heavy bombing of Hanoi ordered by Richard M.
 
NIXON during the last stages of U.S. involvement
 in the 
VIETNAM WAR.

Hansson, Per Albin (1885-1946), Swedish Social
 Democratic leader, in parliament from 1918 and
 premier 1932-46, who led his country through the
 
GREAT DEPRESSION and kept it out of World War II;
 he also played a major early role in developing the
 Swedish welfare state.

Hara, Takashi (Hara Kei; 1856-1921), a Japanese
 journalist who became a leading politician. He was
 president of the Seiyukai party from 1914 and a
 representative of Japan's industrialists. He became
 Japanese prime minister in 1918 and was
 assassinated by a rightist in 1921.

Harappa, center (with Mohenjo-daro) of a major
 Bronze Age civilization in the Indus Valley, now in
 Pakistan, dating from about 2500 to 1500 
B.C.,
 rediscovered and excavated from the 1920s by
 British archaeologist Mortimer 
WHEELER.

Hardie, James Keir (1856-1915), British socialist,
 labor leader, and key ally of the 
WOMAN SUFFRAGE
 movement. He was a coal miner while still a child,
 became a miners' union organizer and labor
 newspaper editor, founded the Scottish Labour
 party, became an MP in 1892, and was a founder of
 the Independent Labour party in 1893 and the Labour
 Representation Committee in 1900. In 1906 that
 committee became the 
LABOUR PARTY, and he became
 the first leader of Labour in the House of Commons.
 He unsuccessfully opposed support of World War I in
 the Socialist International and in his own party.


Harding, Warren Gamaliel (1865-1923), U.S.
 journalist, an Ohio Republican state legislator
 (1899-1903), lieutenant governor (1903-1903), U.S.
 senator from Ohio (1915-21), and 29th president of
 the United States (1921-23), a Republican whose
 "return to normalcy" campaign of 1920 brought him
 victory over Democrat James M. 
COX. Although
 Harding was not personally involved, his brief
 presidency was chiefly notable for the speed with
 which his associates, led by Harry M. 
DAUGHERTY,
 developed the web of corrupt relationships and
 practices that were ultimately to result in the
 
TEAPOT DOME and other scandals that surfaced
 during the 
COOLIDGE administration. His
 administration did sharply restrict immigration,
 responding and helping to generate the wave of
 nativism and isolationism that swept the United
 States after World War I. He died of a heart
 condition in San Francisco, on August 2, 1923, and
 was succeeded in office by his vice-president,
 Calvin 
COOLIDGE.

Harijans (Children of God), Mohatma 
GANDHI'S name
 for India's Untouchables caste.

Harlan, John Marshall (1899-1971), U.S. lawyer and
 judge, appointed to the Supreme Court by Dwight D.
 
EISENHOWER in 1954, thereafter becoming a
 conservative and strict constructionist opposed to
 the activist tendency of the majority in the
 
WARREN court.

Harriman, William Averell (1891-1986), U.S.
 diplomat and New Deal Democrat, who was a World War
 II special representative of President Franklin
 Delano Roosevelt to the Soviet Union and Great
 Britain, ambassador to the Soviet Union 1943-46,
 briefly ambassador to Great Britain in 1946, and
 secretary of commerce in the first 
TRUMAN
 administration. Thereafter he held a series of
 diplomatic positions, among others those of chief
 negotiator of the 1963 
NUCLEAR TEST BAN TREATY.
 He was also governor of New York 1955-59.

Harris, Barbara Clementine (1931- ), U.S. Episcopal
 priest, a Black woman who, on February 11, 1989, in
 Boston, was consecrated as the first woman bishop
 of the Episcopal Church, also becoming the first
 woman bishop of the worldwide Anglican communion.
 Bishop Harris was ordained in 1980 after a career
 in public relations and considerable participation
 in the 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT.

Harris, Louis (1921- ), U.S. public-opinion analyst
 who, from the 1950s, developed more sophisticated
 polls that attempted to look beyond the simply
 yes-no responses of earlier polls. After work with
 Elmo 
ROPER's polling firm, Harris established his
 own in 1956, becoming a key consultant to John F.
 Kennedy during his 1960 presidential campaign. In
 the 1960s he worked with the Columbia Broadcasting
 System (CBS), developing a sophisticated system
 that used 
COMPUTERS to analyze survey data.

Hart, Brooke (1911-33), young woman kidnapped and
 murdered by John Holmes and Thomas Thurmond at San
 Jose, California, November 9, 1933. Her murderers
 were soon captured and on November 24 were lynched
 by a mob of more than 10,000 after the local
 sheriff's request for troops was ignored by
 Governor James Rolfe, whose subsequent statements
 indicated support for the lynch mob. No members of
 the mob were ever indicted.

Hart, Gary (1937- ), U.S. lawyer, a liberal
 activist of the 1960s, who in 1968 helped organize
 the presidential campaign of Robert 
KENNEDY, and
 in 1972 was chief organizer of the 
MCGOVERN
 presidential campaign. He was a two-term senator
 from Colorado 1974-86, and a major contender for
 the 1988 Democratic presidential nomination until
 being accused of engaging in an extramarital affair
 with Donna Rice, an accusation followed by enormous
 media attention. He denied the charges, but was
 forced to abandon his presidential nomination
 campaign.

Hartford Circus fire (July 9, 1944), a small fire
 in the "Big Top" tent housing the Ringling
 Brothers-Barnum and Bailey Circus that suddenly
 spread to the entire, wholly unfireproofed tent,
 bringing it down in flames on the thousands inside;
 168 people died and many others were injured in the
 fire and accompanying panic.

Harvey, Donald, U.S. mass murderer, a Middletown,
 Ohio, hospital orderly who in 1988 confessed to the
 murders of 24 hospitalized people, most of them by
 poisoning, and may have killed as many as 30 more.


Hatem, George (Ma Haide; 1910-88), U.S. public
 health doctor, who practiced in Shanghai, China,
 from 1933, visited Yenan with writer Edgar 
SNOW
 in 1936, and stayed on as a Red Army doctor,
 becoming a Communist in 1937. After the Communist
 victory in 1949, Hatem, known and greatly respected
 throughout China as 
MA HAIDE, became a leading
 Chinese public health organizer, especially active
 in the fight against venereal disease, and a world
 figure in public health.

Hatfield, Mark Odum (1922- ), U.S. political
 scientist and university professor, in the Oregon
 state legislature 1951-56, Oregon secretary of
 state 1957-59, governor 1959-67, and long-term
 senator, from 1967. A leading liberal Republican,
 Hatfield was an outspoken critic of the 
VIETNAM

 WAR and a co-sponsor of the antiwar
 McGovern-Hatfield amendment. In the 1980s he was a
 leading proponent of bilateral nuclear disarmament.


Hauptmann, Bruno Richard, kidnapper and murderer of
 20-month-old Charles A. Lindbergh, Jr., on March 1,
 1932. Hauptmann was convicted of the murder and
 executed on April 3, 1936.

Havel, Vaclav (1936- ), Czech writer and political
 leader, a playwright and essayist, who in 1977
 became a leader of Charter 77, a leading Czech
 human rights organization. He spent much of the
 next decade in prison, and his plays were banned.
 On December 29, 1989, with the quick, bloodless
 revolution that toppled his country's Communist
 government, he became the first non-Communist
 president of Czechoslovakia since 1948.

Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last?
 Have you left no sense of decency? rhetorical
 query by Joseph Nye 
WELCH, U.S. Army attorney at
 the 
ARMY-MCCARTHY HEARINGS of 1954, to Senator
 Joseph R. 
MCCARTHY.

Haw-Haw, Lord (William Joyce; 1906-46), British
 fascist who became a Nazi broadcaster during World
 War II. Joyce was executed for treason after the
 war.

Hawke, Bob (1929- ), Australian economist and trade
 union official, who was president of the Australian
 Council of Trade Unions 1970-80, became a Labour
 member of parliament in 1980, and prime minister in
 1983, then pursued an independent and antinuclear
 path in foreign affairs while enjoying considerable
 economic success at home, although he encountered
 some damaging political scandals in the late 1980s.


Hawking, Stephen William (1942- ), British
 physicist, who made major theoretical insights into
 the nature of 
BLACK HOLES, attempted to develop a
 
QUANTUM THEORY of gravity, and strongly supported
 the 
BIG BANG THEORY of the universe's origin.
 Despite being badly disabled from age 20 by
 amytrophic lateral sclerosis, he communicated
 widely through his writings, most notably in the
 surprise best-seller A Brief History of Time
 (1988).

Hawkins, Gerald Stanley (1928- ), British
 astronomer, who in 1963 suggested that Stonehenge
 was a gigantic ancient observatory, aligned with
 solar and lunar eclipses when it was built, a view
 outlined in Stonehenge Decoded (1965).
 Controversial at the time, Hawkins's view gained
 credence as other such early observatories were
 found around the world, forming the basis for the
 new specialty of paleoastronomy.

Haya de la Torre, Victor Raul (1895-1979), Peruvian
 liberal political leader, founder of the American
 Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) while in
 Mexican exile in 1924, and a major figure in
 Peruvian and Latin American politics. He returned
 from exile to run unsuccessfully for the presidency
 in 1931, moving into guerrilla warfare against the
 government after charging electoral fraud. After
 imprisonment, release, a new set of disputes, and
 the outlawing of APRA, he went underground,
 emerging with the legalization of APRA in 1945. In
 1949, with APRA once again outlawed, he took refuge
 in Lima's Colombian embassy and stayed there until
 1954, when he was allowed to go into Mexican exile
 once again. He returned to Peru with the
 restoration of democracy in 1957, won the
 presidential election of 1962, and was denied the
 presidency by the Peruvian military; he then lost
 the election of 1963. He died in 1979; in 1985, his
 party did take power, with the election of Alan
 Garca Perez to the presidency.

Hayden, Thomas Emmett (1940- ), U.S. civil rights
 and peace activist, president of the 
STUDENTS FOR

 A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY (SDS) 1962-63, and a leading
 anti-
VIETNAM WAR activist. He was convicted as
 one of the 
CHICAGO SEVEN after the 
CHICAGO

 DEMOCRATIC NATIONAL CONVENTION violence of 1968
 and was later freed. He later became a California
 state legislator.

Hayek, Freidrich August von (1899- ), Austrian-born
 economist, who opposed government intervention in
 economic, political, and social matters, and whose
 popular book, The Road to Serfdom (1944), was
 influential in developing conservative political
 thinking. He shared a Nobel Prize in economics with
 Gunnar 
MYRDAL in 1974.

Haynesworth, Clement Furman (1912- ), U.S. lawyer
 and judge, a conservative who was in August 1969,
 nominated to the Supreme Court by president Richard
 M. 
NIXON. After a major nomination battle, the
 Haynesworth nomination was defeated 55-45 in the
 Senate.

Haywood, William Dudley "Big Bill" (1869-1928),
 leader of the Western Federation of Miners in the
 late 19th and early 20th centuries, a founder of
 the 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD (IWW) in
 1905, and its leader until his death. In 1906 he
 was accused, with two others, of directing
 confessed murderer Harry Orchard to kill former
 governor of Idaho Frank Steunenberg, but he was
 acquitted of the charge in 1907 after a notable
 defense by Clarence 
DARROW. Haywood opposed
 American participation in World War I and was
 convicted of sedition in 1918. Free on bail, he
 fled to the Soviet Union in 1921 and died there in
 1928.

H-bomb, popular shorthand for the 
HYDROGEN BOMB,
 first developed in the United States in 1952.

He kept us out of war, the 1916 reelection slogan
 of U.S. president Woodrow 
WILSON.

Heady, Bonnie Brown, and Carl Austin Hall, the
 kidnap-murderers of 6-year-old Bobby Greenlease, at
 Kansas City, Missouri, on September 28, 1953. Hall
 murdered the child after the kidnapping; then he
 and Heady demanded and secured a $600,000 ransom,
 of which half was eventually recovered. They were
 executed on December 18, 1953.

Hearst, Patricia "Patty" (1954- ), daughter of
 publisher Randolph Hearst and granddaughter of
 William Randolph Hearst, who was kidnapped in San
 Francisco on February 5, 1974, by members of the
 
SYMBIONESE LIBERATION ARMY (SLA), in a case that
 then and later attracted worldwide attention. On
 April 15, Hearst participated in a San Francisco
 bank robbery. On May 17, six SLA members died in a
 gun battle with police. Hearst then went into
 hiding, was captured in 1975, and was subsequently
 sentenced to 7 years imprisonment for her role in
 the bank robbery. Her sentence was later commuted
 to 22 months.

Hearst, William Randolph (1863-1951), U.S.
 entrepreneur and journalist, who bought the New
 York Morning Journal in 1895, built it into a
 commercially successful mass circulation daily, and
 used it as the base of a major publishing
 enterprise, which included print and broadcast
 media. He promoted U.S. initiation of the
 Spanish-American War, opposed U.S. participation in
 both World Wars, and opposed the 
LEAGUE OF

 NATIONS. He served two terms as a New York
 Democratic congressman 1903-1907 but was defeated
 in several other electoral campaigns. He also
 collected substantial numbers of artworks, from
 1927 housing most of them in or near his castle at
 San Simeon, California. His career was memorialized
 in the Orson Welles film, Citizen Kane (1941).

Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
 (1964), a landmark U.S. Supreme Court case
 outlawing discrimination in facilities serving
 interstate travelers.

heart transplant, replacement of a diseased human
 heart with a donor's healthy heart, the first being
 performed by surgeon 
CHRISTIAAN BARNARD in 1967
 on Louis Washansky; a type of organ 
TRANSPLANT,
 made possible by the development of 
OPEN-HEART

 SURGERY.

Heath, Edward Richard George (1916- ), British
 political leader, who saw service in World War II,
 became a Conservative member of Parliament in 1950,
 leader of his party in 1965, and prime minister in
 a surprise victory over Harold 
WILSON in 1970. As
 prime minister, he successfully led Britain into
 the 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY in 1973 but was unable to
 cope with Britain's continuing economic and
 corollary labor problems, and was unseated in 1974
 by Harold Wilson's Liberal-Labour coalition. He
 lost his party leadership in 1975 to Margaret
 
THATCHER.

Heaviside layer, alternate name for the
 
IONOSPHERE, which enhances the quality of radio
 transmission, predicted in 1902 and found in 1924.


heavy water (deuterium oxide), water made with a
 high proportion of 
DEUTERIUM (a heavy 
ISOTOPE
 of hydrogen) replacing ordinary hydrogen; heavy
 water is used in some 
NUCLEAR REACTORS.

Hedin, Sven (1865-1952), Swedish explorer who
 traveled widely in Central Asia from the 1890s to
 the 1930s, mapping areas unknown and uncharted by
 Europeans and rediscovering many long-abandoned
 sites along the route of the old Silk Road. Much of
 Hedin's wide-ranging work in geology, botany,
 ethnography, and archaeology went unregarded after
 midcentury, because of his support for the Nazis in
 World War II.

Heisenberg, Werner Karl (1901-1976), German
 physicist, who in 1927 posited the 
UNCERTAINTY

 PRINCIPLE, the revolutionary view that the
 position and the momentum of a body cannot both be
 calculated at the same time with full accuracy; the
 more accurate the one measurement, the less
 accurate the other. His theory won him the 1932
 Nobel Prize for Physics. In earlier work on nuclear
 theory with Niels 
BOHR, in 1925, he developed
 matrix algebra to help form a mathematical basis
 for 
QUANTUM THEORY. Heisenberg was in charge of
 the German effort to build an 
ATOMIC BOMB during
 World War II, but some early calculation errors and
 the bombing of the laboratories slowed the project.


helicopter, aircraft lifted by one or more
 horizontal rotors, as opposed to 
AIRPLANES, which
 are driven by vertical propellers or 
JET

 PROPULSION. Many Europeans and Americans
 experimented with such craft in the years just
 after the Wright brothers first flew. From 1907,
 several crude helicopters-including one by Igor
 
SIKORSKY-were built, some rising inches or feet
 off the ground before crashing. In 1923 Spanish
 engineer Juan de la Cierva developed a craft called
 an autogiro; by the 1930s dozens were in
 small-scale service in Europe and the Americas. The
 Germans, too, developed a practical helicopter in
 1937, reaching a record altitude of 11,700 feet by
 1938. Then in 1939 Russian-American engineer Igor
 Sikorsky developed a practical workhorse
 helicopter. Sikorsky's design proved the model for
 post-war helicopters. They were widely used in the
 
KOREAN WAR for transportation and evacuation, and
 again in the 
VIETNAM WAR, becoming an offensive
 weapon as well, with the addition of guns and
 
ROCKETS. Helicopters also saw wide-scale local
 use for traffic reports and disaster surveys.

Helsinki Accords, the human rights provisions of
 the agreement generated by the Conference on
 Security and Cooperation in Europe, signed on
 August 1, 1975, by all of the nations of Europe
 except Albania and including the Soviet Union, and
 by the United States and Canada. The accords
 generally supported the concepts of civil liberties
 and freedom of expression, but had no binding power
 on the signatories, which became very clear in the
 years immediately following.

Henry Street Settlement, a pioneer American
 settlement house on New York City's lower East
 Side, organized in 1893 by nurse Lillian 
WALD; it
 was her home for 40 years.

Henson, Matthew Alexander (1866-1955), U.S.
 explorer, who accompanied Robert Edwin 
PEARY on
 several polar expeditions, including the successful
 one to the 
NORTH POLE in 1909; he was the first
 Black man to reach the site.

Hepburn Act U.S. federal law granting the
 Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) the right to
 regulate interstate railroad freight rates, thereby
 greatly increasing the power of the ICC. The law
 was strongly supported by President Theodore
 
ROOSEVELT, as an important part of his
 trust-regulation strategy.

Herero-Hottentot Rising (1904-1908), a long
 insurrection in German Southwest Africa (later
 
NAMIBIA), ultimately defeated by the Germans.

Hertzog, James (1866-1942), South African farmer
 and deeply committed segregationist, who became a
 general during the 
BOER WAR and opposed
 British-Boer cooperation and reconciliation after
 the war, as fostered by Louis 
BOTHA and Jan
 Christian 
SMUTS. He founded the 
NATIONAL PARTY
 in 1914, opposed South African entry into World War
 I, and defeated Smuts to become National party
 prime minister (1924-39). He was a coalition prime
 minister 1933-39, losing office and leaving
 politics after he unsuccessfully opposed South
 African entry into World War II.

Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, key diagram in modern
 
STELLAR EVOLUTION theory, relating brightness and
 stellar types, based on ideas developed
 independently by Danish astronomer Ejnar
 Hertzsprung in 1911 and U.S. astronomer Henry
 Norris Russell, who in 1913 put them into diagram
 form.

Herzl, Theodor (1860-1904), Hungarian lawyer and
 writer, who became the chief organizer of
 
ZIONISM. He convened the founding meeting and
 became first president of the Congress of Zionist
 Organizations at Basel, Switzerland, in 1897, and
 led the Zionist movement until his death.

Hess, Rudolph (1894-1987), German Nazi, who went to
 prison with Adolf 
HITLER after the 
BEER HALL

 PUTSCH of 1923, and then became Hitler's private
 secretary. During the years of power, he became
 deputy party leader and kept Hitler's confidence,
 but had little actual power. In May 1941 he flew to
 Britain, parachuted to earth, and proposed peace
 and a British-German alliance against the Soviet
 Union. He was held as a war prisoner, tried and
 convicted of war crimes at 
NUREMBERG in 1946, and
 spent the rest of his life in Spandau Prison.

Heydrich, Reinhard (1904-42), Nazi 
GESTAPO head
 and 
JEWISH HOLOCAUST organizer, who was known
 throughout Europe as "Heydrich the Hangman." He was
 assassinated in Czechoslovakia, being wounded in
 May and dying in June 1942. The Gestapo charged
 that the village of 
LIDICE, near Prague, had
 sheltered his killers. In reprisal, on June 10,
 1942, the Gestapo murdered or sent to concentration
 camps the 1,200 people of Lidice, and destroyed the
 village.

Heyerdahl, Thor (1914- ), Norwegian ethnologist and
 explorer, who believed that cultural similarities
 in widely separated lands sprang not from
 independent parallel development but from cultural
 infusions from distant lands. In support of these
 hypotheses regarding pre-Columbian civilizations in
 South America, Heyerdahl crossed the Pacific (1947)
 on a balsa-wood raft, as related in his
 best-selling book Kon-Tiki (1948), and also crossed
 the Atlantic in an early-Egyptian-style reed boat
 (1969-70), named Ra II.

Hezbollah (Hizb-Allah; Party of God), in Lebanon,
 an Iranian-influenced Shiite Moslem Lebanese
 militia using guerrilla and terrorist tactics,
 often against such targets as airliners, foreign
 legations and embassies, and foreign nationals
 taken as hostages; in the late 1980s it was an
 increasingly strong force in the 
LEBANESE WARS.


Hezbollah (Party of God), in Iran, a paramilitary
 force operating as an adjunct of the Islamic
 Republican party, the party of Ayatollah 
KHOMEINI
 until he dissolved it in 1987.

Higgins, William Richard, one of the 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, a U.S. lieutenant colonel and head of
 the 
UNITED NATIONS truce supervision team,
 kidnapped on February 17, 1988. He was murdered by
 his captors on or before July 31, 1989. They
 claimed his killing to be in retaliation for the
 July 28, 1989 Israeli kidnapping of Sheikh Abdul
 Karim Obeid, but he may have been killed at an
 earlier date.

Hilbert, David (1862-43) German mathematician, who
 in a 1900 speech spelled out 23 unsolved
 mathematical problems, challenging his colleagues
 to break out into new areas of study. Hilbert
 himself made wide-ranging contributions to
 mathematics, as in his formulation of modern
 algebraic number theory. His work on space of
 infinite dimensions, called Hilbert space, helped
 form the mathematical underpinnings of 
QUANTUM

 THEORY.

Hill, James Jerome (1838-1916), U.S. railroad
 financier and operator, who built a railroad system
 from the Midwest to the Pacific late in the 19th
 century. In the early 1900s, he and J. Pierpont
 
MORGAN won a battle for control of that system
 and other major U.S. railroads, setting up the
 Northern Securities Company, a holding company that
 they controlled, and in which their former
 antagonists held minority interests. In 1904, in
 the landmark 
NORTHERN SECURITIES antitrust case,
 the Supreme Court forced dissolution of the
 company.

Hill, Joe (1879-1915), Swedish immigrant born Joel
 Hagglund, Americanized to Joseph Hillstrom,
 memorialized in the song "Joe Hill." He was an
 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD (IWW) activist
 and popular labor songwriter of the early 20th
 century, whose songs included "Casey Jones." He was
 executed for murder in Utah in 1915, on evidence
 widely thought to be insufficient.

Hillary, Edmund Percival (1919- ), New Zealand-born
 explorer and later ambassador who, with Tenzing
 
NORGAY, was the first to reach the top of Mt.
 Everest, the world's highest mountain, on May 29,
 1953. During the 
INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR
 (1957-58), Hillary led what was only the third
 party to reach the 
SOUTH POLE, after Roald
 
AMUNDSEN and Robert 
SCOTT, arriving by tractor
 on January 4, 1958.

Hillman, Sidney (1887-1946), U.S. garment worker,
 who in 1914 became the first president of the
 Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, a position
 he held until his death. His union pioneered in
 such areas as the provision of banking services and
 cooperative housing for members, and in winning
 adoption of the 40-hour week. He was an initiator
 of the 
CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (CIO)
 in the mid-1930s, and during World War II held
 several key labor-related government posts. A
 Democrat, he was close to Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT and one his key labor supporters.

Hillquit, Morris (1869-1933), U.S. lawyer, who
 became a key theoretician, writer, defense counsel,
 and spokesman for the socialist movement, from late
 in the 19th century through the early 1930s. He
 opposed American participation in World War I and
 defended many of those accused of sedition for
 opposing that war. He was an unsuccessful socialist
 congressional candidate five times and twice an
 unsuccessful candidate for the New York mayoralty.


Hills, Carla Anderson (1934- ), U.S. lawyer, and
 secretary of the Department of Housing and Urban
 Development 1975-77; she was named U.S. trade
 representative by president George 
BUSH on
 December 6, 1988.

Himmler, Heinrich (1900-45), Nazi Party leader, who
 was from 1929 head of the SS and who, after
 
HITLER'S rise to power in 1933, created the
 
GESTAPO, the Nazi secret police, and at the same
 time began the 
CONCENTRATION CAMP system. He
 directly operated the camps in which an estimated
 10-26 million, 6 million of them Jews, were
 murdered by the Nazis. He also developed the large
 SS military organization that fought in World War
 II, the 
WAFFEN SS. He committed suicide on May
 23, 1945.

Hinckley, John W. (1955- ), young man who shot
 President Ronald 
REAGAN and wounded three others
 in Washington, DC, on March 30, 1981; in August
 1981 he was acquitted as insane at the time of the
 shootings and was institutionalized.

Hindenburg, hydrogen-filled zeppelin, a German
 
DIRIGIBLE, in regular trans-Atlantic service
 1932-37. It burst into flame while landing in
 Lakehurst, New Jersey, on May 6, 1937, killing 36
 people, an event reported by eyewitnesses on radio
 with great impact.

Hindenburg, Paul von (1847-1934), Prussian general,
 who stopped the Russian advance into East Prussia
 early in World War I, winning major victories at
 
TANNENBERG and the first Battle of the 
MASURIAN

 LAKES. He became commander-in-chief on the Eastern
 Front and in 1916 chief of the German general
 staff; for the balance of the war he was largely
 responsible for running Germany as well as the
 armed forces. He remained chief of the general
 staff after the war, became president of the
 
WEIMAR REPUBLIC in 1925, and ultimately brought
 the 
NAZIS into his government in 1933, effecting
 an easy way for 
HITLER to take power in Germany.


Hindenburg Line, a strong German defensive line in
 World War I, approximately 20 miles behind its
 1914-17 Western Front Line, to which the German
 army withdrew February 23-April 5, 1917.

Hindenburg Line Offensive (September 27-November
 11, 1918), World War I push in which British forces
 stormed and breached the 
HINDENBURG LINE; joined
 by Belgian forces, they took Ypres and moved ahead
 in Flanders. The offensive stopped only with the
 Armistice on November 11, 1918.

Hine, Lewis Wickes (1874-1940), U.S. photographer,
 whose portrayals of the immigrant experience, from
 arrival at 
ELLIS ISLAND to working life in
 America, coupled with his portrayals of child
 labor, made a deep impact on the development of
 social reform movements in the United States. In
 retrospect, his work is in aggregate also a major
 work in American social history.

hippies, the most radical exponents of the
 
COUNTERCULTURE of the 1960s and early 1970s, who
 stressed the virtue of personal simplicity and
 attempted to retreat from modern industrial
 culture, often into rural communes, though
 sometimes into such urban enclaves as San
 Francisco's Haight-Ashbury district and New York
 City's East Village.

Hirohito (1901-89), emperor of Japan from 1926. He
 was a revered figure but essentially a figurehead,
 who was unable to stop Japan's militarists from
 beginning World War II, although he had doubts
 about the wisdom of the course taken. Traditionally
 silent, he announced Japan's World War II surrender
 in a radio address, and after the war made himself
 considerably more visible.

Hiroshima, site on Japan's Honshu Island where the
 
ATOMIC BOMB was first used in warfare. At 8:15
 
A.M. on August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay, a B-29
 bomber of the U.S. Air Force, dropped the bomb, one
 of two atomic bombs then in existence, on
 Hiroshima, at the time a city of 350,000 people and
 a relatively undamaged minor military target. The
 bombing was conceived as a demonstration of the
 killing power of the atomic weapon, and an attempt
 to force Japan to surrender unconditionally. The
 bomb struck the center of the city, immediately or
 shortly thereafter killing an estimated
 70,000-80,000 people, injuring an equal number, and
 destroying or seriously damaging almost all of the
 city's structures. An estimated 75,000-125,000 more
 people later died of 
RADIATION, CANCER, and other
 bomb-related injuries, most of them within a few
 years of the bombing; victims and their children
 are still dying today from the bomb's effects. The
 city was rebuilt after the war, away from the
 radiation-damaged area; it is also now a Japanese
 national peace park. Since Hiroshima, the existence
 of the atomic weapon has cast a shadow over every
 life on the planet and on the possibility of human
 survival; in that sense, it seems quite proper to
 describe it as the most significant event of the
 20th century.

Hiss, Alger (1904- ), U.S. lawyer, who held several
 federal government positions in the early 1930s; in
 1936 he moved into diplomacy and during World War
 II became active in developing plans and meetings
 in preparation for the formation of the 
UNITED

 NATIONS. He was president of the Carnegie
 Endowment for International Peace 1946-1949. In
 August 1948 he was accused by Whittaker 
CHAMBERS,
 testifying before the 
HOUSE COMMITTEE ON

 UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES (HUAC), of having been a
 Communist spy, and the 
HISS-CHAMBERS case gained
 enormous national and international attention. The
 case was one of the centerpieces of the witchhunt
 of the period and helped make the career of
 then-congressman and 
HUAC memberer Richard 
M.

 NIXON. Ultimately, in 1950, Hiss was convicted of
 perjury, and was imprisoned for almost 4 years.
 Afterward, Hiss continued to maintain his
 innocence, but was no longer able to participate in
 public life.

Hiss-Chambers Case (1949-1950), the perjury trials
 of Alger 
HISS, who had been accused by Whittaker
 
CHAMBERS of having stolen top-secret state
 department files while a federal government
 employee in the 1930s and of having given Chambers
 documents to hide for him in 1937 and 1938. Some of
 these documents were the 
PUMPKIN PAPERS, rolls of
 microfilm Chambers stated he had hidden in a hollow
 pumpkin on his farm in Maryland. Hiss denied the
 allegations and was charged with perjury; the first
 trial ended in a hung jury, the second in
 conviction and imprisonment.

Hitler, Adolf (1889-1945), World War I corporal who
 became German dictator, took the world into World
 War II, and became by far humanity's greatest mass
 murderer. Hitler joined the Workers' party in 1920,
 became leader of what had by then become the 
NAZI

 PARTY in 1921, conducted the failed Munich 
BEER

 HALL PUTSCH of 1923 (writing Mein Kampf during his
 resulting jail term), and was until the late 1920s
 leader of a minor party. He picked up popular,
 army, and business support beginning in the late
 1920s, took power in 1933, and immediately began
 the process of turning Germany into a fully
 totalitarian, fully armed state, in the process
 murdering tens of thousands of his opponents. After
 achieving power he became an extremely successful
 international adventurer, bluffing his way into a
 series of bloodless conquests, as in the
 
RHINELAND, in 
AUSTRIA, and at 
MUNICH.
 Ultimately, he took his country, his allies, and
 the world into war-and finally, into the same kind
 of two-front war that had brought Germany defeat in
 World War I. During his 12 years in power he was
 directly responsible for the deaths of tens of
 millions of people, including at least 10 million
 (and perhaps as many as 26 million) who were
 murdered in German 
CONCENTRATION CAMPS, 6 million
 of them the Jews of the 
HOLOCAUST, the others
 Poles, Russians, and innocents drawn from many
 other nations. Until very near the end his army,
 party, and the great mass of the German people
 fully supported him; the only internal challenge he
 faced was the aborted army 
OFFICERS' PLOT to
 assassinate him, coming in July 1944, when the war
 was clearly lost. He committed suicide in Berlin on
 April 30, 1945, with his mistress-turned-wife, Eva
 
BRAUN.

Hitler diaries fraud, cause celebre that erupted on
 April 22, 1983, when the West German  magazine
 Stern announced discovery of 60 volumes of the
 diaries of Adolf 
HITLER, for which it had paid
 $3.7 million to Nazi memorabilia dealer Konrad
 Kujau, as arranged by Stern reporter Gerd Heideman.
 On April 23, British scholar Hugh Trevor-Roper
 vouched for the authenticity of the memoirs, a
 position he moderated somewhat two days later, as
 great skepticism was voiced from many quarters.
 Meanwhile, the Sunday Times of London paid $400,000
 for the right to print excerpts. By May 6, tests
 had proved the purported diaries to be false. Kujau
 admitted the forgeries. Heideman was fired. The
 Times demanded its money back. Heads rolled in the
 Stern executive suite.

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), organism that
 causes the deadly disease 
AIDS.

Hizb-Allah (Hezbollah; Party of God),
 Iranian-influenced Shiite Moslem Lebanese militia,
 using guerrilla and terrorist tactics, often
 against such targets as airliners, foreign
 legations and embassies, and foreign nationals
 taken as hostages; in the late 1980s an
 increasingly strong force in the 
LEBANESE WARS,


Hoa Hao, Buddhist Vietnamese religious group, some
 of whose members were employed by the 
CENTRAL

 INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA) as anti-Communist
 mercenaries during the 
VIETNAM WAR.

Ho Chi Minh ("He who enlightens," originally Nguyen
 That Thanh; 1890-1969), Vietnamese leader who lived
 in Western Europe in his youth, joining the French
 Socialist Party in 1917 and becoming a founder of
 the French Communist Party in 1920. He studied in
 Moscow in the early 1920s, and from 1924 was a
 
COMINTERN agent in China and southeast Asia. In
 1941, he organized the League for the Independence
 of Vietnam (
VIETMINH), which controlled large
 sections of northern Indochina at the end of World
 War II, and he became the first president of the
 Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Sepember 1945.
 From 1946 to 1954, his forces fought and won the
 long 
FRENCH-VIETNAMESE WAR, and they were engaged
 in the 
VIETNAM WAR when he died.

Ho Chi Minh Trail, the North Vietnamese route
 through Laos and Cambodia used for supply and troop
 transport from 1959; it was a major military route
 during the 
VIETNAM WAR.

Hodgkin, Dorothy Crowfoot (1910- ), Egypt-born
 British chemist, who used 
X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,
 along with a computer for analysis of the complex
 results, to detail the structure of large organic
 molecules, including pepsin, 
PENICILLIN, INSULIN,
 and 
VITAMIN B-12, work for which she won the 1964
 Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

Hoffa, James Riddle (1913-1975?), U.S. worker who
 became a Detroit labor leader and then national
 head of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters,
 becoming president of the union in 1957. His union
 was charged with corruption and expelled from the
 AFL-CIO in 1957, but it continued to grow-and to
 grow even more corrupt-under his leadership. He was
 convicted of jury tampering, mail fraud, and
 financial malfeasance in office during the 1960s,
 sentenced to a total of 13 years imprisonment, and
 was in prison for almost 5 years, 1967-71.  His
 sentence was then commuted by President Richard 
M.

 NIXON. On July 30, 1975, he disappeared and is
 thought to have been kidnapped and murdered.

Hoffman, Abbie (1936-89), a leading figure of the
 1960s U.S. counterculture. He was a founder and
 leader of the Youth International Party (YIP) and
 became known as a "
YIPPIE" leader. He was
 indicted and convicted as one of the 
CHICAGO

 SEVEN after the 
CHICAGO DEMOCRATIC CONVENTION
 riots of 1968, but was later acquitted. He went
 into hiding in 1973, rather than face a drug
 charge, giving himself up in 1980.

HOLC, the initials of the 
HOME OWNERS LOAN

 CORPORATION, a 
NEW DEAL federal agency of the
 1930s.

Holland, Battle of (May 10-14, 1940), a quick
 German victory in Holland early in World War II,
 accomplished by a combination of ground forces
 striking across the border; airborne troop landings
 that destroyed interior communications, took the
 Rhine estuary bridges, and neutralized key
 defenses; and terror bombings. The Dutch breached
 their own dikes, but flooding did not stop the
 German advance; nor did French forces, which were
 easily driven back. The Dutch government fled to
 Britain, and Dutch armed forces surrendered on May
 14.

Hollywood Ten, 10 U.S. film directors and
 screenwriters who refused to testify before the
 
HOUSE UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES COMMITTEE in 1947,
 claiming the protection of the First Amendment;
 they were cited for contempt, jailed for 1-year
 terms, and thereafter blacklisted by the film
 industry. In later years several of the writers
 worked under pseudonyms, some winning major film
 industry awards. Later still, long after the
 anti-Communist hysteria of the 
MCCARTHY period
 had subsided, several were rehabilitated, and
 worked openly again in the industry that had
 expelled them.

Holmes, Oliver Wendell (1841-1935), U.S. lawyer,
 the son of 19th-century writer-physician Oliver
 Wendell Holmes; he saw service in the Civil War,
 became a scholar, writer, and philosopher in the
 law, a justice and chief justice of the
 Massachusetts Supreme Court, and in 1902 was
 appointed to the Supreme Court by Theodore
 
ROOSEVELT. During the next 30 years, he became a
 major figure in the history of the Court and the
 Court's much-quoted "Great Dissenter."

Holocaust, a term applied in the 20th century to
 three enormous sets of mass murders: the 
JEWISH

 HOLOCAUST, in which an estimated 6 million Jews
 died at the hands of a German Nazi government bent
 on committing 
GENOCIDE; the 
ARMENIAN HOLOCAUST,
 in which an estimated 1.5 million Armenians died at
 the hands of the Turkish government before and
 during World War I; and the 
CAMBODIAN (KAMPUCHEAN)

 HOLOCAUST, in which an estimated 3 million
 Cambodians died at the hands of their own
 government.

holography, technique of producing
 three-dimensional photographs or illustrations of
 objects; conceived of in 1947 by Hungarian-British
 physicist Dennis Gabor but not made practical until
 the 1960s development of the 
LASER. Because
 holographs are difficult to reproduce, and
 therefore to counterfeit, they were increasingly
 used on 
CREDIT CARDS and other sensitive
 materials.

Holyoake, Keith Jacka (1904-83), New Zealand
 farmer, National Party member of parliament
 (1932-38; 1943-72), and prime minister briefly in
 1957 and again 1960-72. A conservative, he
 supported the 
VIETNAM WAR and fostered New
 Zealand participation in regional military
 alliances.

homeostasis, ability of an organism to establish a
 physiological equilibrium, as through the mechanism
 of 
FEEDBACK or, when deliberately manipulated,
 
BIOFEEDBACK; a term coined in 1926 by American
 physiologist Walter Bradford Cannon. Others later
 applied the idea of homeostasis to institutions and
 societies as social organisms.

Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC), a U.S. 
NEW

 DEAL agency created during the first 
HUNDRED

 DAYS of the Franklin 
ROOSEVELT administration;
 it made direct federal loans to more than 1 million
 homeowners, saving many of them from foreclosure
 and helping to stabilize the home mortgage
 operations of the financial industries.

Homma, Masaharu (1887-1946), the general who
 commanded Japanese invasion forces in the
 Philippines 1941-42. In 1946 he was convicted and
 executed for the crimes committed by his troops
 against war prisoners, including those during the
 
BATAAN DEATH MARCH.

Honecker, Erich (1912- ), East German communist and
 antifascist activist, who was imprisoned by the
 Nazis 1935-45, then rose in the postwar period to
 become a member of the Socialist Unity party
 secretariat in 1958. He succeeded Walter 
ULBRICHT
 as party secretary-general and East German leader
 in 1971, in that position continuing to develop his
 country's industrial system within the context of a
 one-party Soviet-oriented state. He resigned under
 pressure, on October 18, 1989, as massive political
 changes rocked East Germany.

Hong Kong, Battle of (December 8-25, 1941), attack
 by Japanese forces across the Chinese border on
 December 8; after an ultimatum was rejected by
 British defenders, air and artillery assaults on
 the island began. Japanese troops began to land on
 December 18, and by December 25 they had overcome
 the British garrison, which surrendered.

Honkeido mine explosion (April 26, 1942), an
 explosion in a coal mine in Honkeiko, Manchuria,
 that killed at least 1,549 in the world's worst
 mine disaster to date.

Hoover, Herbert Clark (1874-1964), U.S. engineer,
 active as chairman of several war relief
 organizations during and after World War I, who
 became secretary of commerce (1920-27), and 31st
 president of the United States (1929-1933). A
 Republican, he defeated Democrat Alfred E. 
SMITH
 in 1928. As president, his major domestic work was
 the passage of the 
SMOOT-HAWLEY TARIFF, in June
 1930, thereby erecting major tariff barriers that
 did much to accelerate the world's slide into the
 
GREAT DEPRESSION, which had begun with the
 
CRASH of October 1929. He also initiated the
 
RECONSTRUCTION FINANCE CORPORATION in 1932, in a
 modest and wholly unsuccessful attempt to reverse
 the impact of the economic downturn by supplying
 government money to large institutions to stimulate
 economic growth. He was opposed to directly helping
 the ever-increasing masses of unemployed who had by
 the early 1930s become highly visible throughout
 the United States, and acquiesced when troops led
 by Douglas 
MACARTHUR evicted the 
BONUS MARCHERS
 from their squatters' camp near Washington, in July
 1932, the camp burning down during the eviction, an
 action widely blamed on the president. He was
 defeated by Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT in 1932,
 then retiring to private life until being asked to
 serve on several federal advisory groups after
 World War II.

Hoover, J. Edgar (1895-1972), director of the
 
FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION 1924-72. Early in
 his career, as a special assistant to U.S. Attorney
 General A. Mitchell 
PALMER, Hoover participated
 in the organization and execution of the 
PALMER

 RAIDS. In the 1930s he directed the 
FBI's highly
 publicized internal war against criminals, dubbed
 "public enemies." In the 1940s and 1950s he was a
 leading American anti-Communist, and in the 1960s
 he expanded his role to include surveillance and
 sometimes harassment of anti-
VIETNAM WAR
 dissidents and of such civil rights leaders as
 Martin Luther 
KING, Jr.

Hoovervilles, the shanty towns that were thrown up
 all over the United States by the unemployed and
 homeless during the early years of the 
GREAT

 DEPRESSION of the 1930s, before Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT'S NEW DEAL programs began to take hold.


Hopkins, Harry Lloyd (1890-1946), U.S. social
 worker, who in 1931 became New York governor
 Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT'S state emergency
 relief administrator, and a member of Roosevelt's
 inner circle. In 1933, he followed Roosevelt to
 Washington to become head of the 
FEDERAL EMERGENCY

 RELIEF ADMINISTRATION and later organizer of the
 
WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION (WPA). He became
 secretary of commerce in 1938 and was a key
 organizer of Roosevelt's 1940 presidential
 campaign, but in 1941 resigned his cabinet post
 because of illness. During World War II, he
 continued to advise Roosevelt, taking on many
 missions abroad and attending all of Roosevelt's
 wartime conferences with Allied leaders.

hormones, group of substances that influence or
 control organs or tissues, especially in such vital
 areas as growth, metabolism, and reproduction;
 usually secreted in the body by endocrine glands.
 Though some such substances were known from the
 19th century, they were first recognized as a group
 and named hormones (Greek for "I excite") in 1904
 by British physiologist Ernest Starling. Among the
 best known of these chemical messengers are
 
INSULIN, ADRENALINE, THYROXINE, CORTISONE,

 ESTROGEN, and 
TESTOSTERONE, many of which have
 been synthesized for use as medications, sometimes
 with the aid of 
GENETIC ENGINEERING.

Horney, Karen Danielsen (1885-1952),
 German-American neo-Freudian psychoanalyst, who
 broke with the Freudians over the issue of sexual
 primacy. A student and professor of
 
PSYCHOANALYSIS in Germany, Horney emigrated to
 the United States in 1932. After publishing her
 views that environmental factors were more
 important than sexual urges in the formation of
 neuroses, and rejecting many of 
FREUD's views on
 women's sexuality, especially the idea of penis
 envy, she was in 1941 expelled by the New York
 Psychoanalytic Institute, thereafter founding her
 own Association for the Advancement of
 Psychoanalysis.

Horthy, Miklos (1868-1957), Hungarian naval
 officer, whose forces defeated the Communist Bela
 
KUN government in 1919; Horthy then took over the
 country as regent but did not allow the king to
 return, instead becoming dictator of Hungary
 1920-44. He was an ally of Adolf 
HITLER before
 and during World War II, pulling away from Hitler
 in 1944 when it became clear that the war was being
 lost. He was then imprisoned by the Germans,
 imprisoned and then released by the Americans, and
 went into exile.

Horton, William (Willie), an imprisoned murderer
 who, while on furlough under a Massachusetts
 weekend furlough program committed rape and murder.
 The incident became an issue in the 1988
 presidential campaign, when George 
BUSH used it
 to attack his opponent, Massachusetts Governor
 Michael 
DUKAKIS.

hospice movement, approach to treating terminally
 ill patients that focuses on maximizing patients'
 comfort and dignity, often allowing them to die in
 their own homes or in a homelike shelter called a
 hospice, rather than in an impersonal hospital
 setting. Inspired by medieval hospices, and in
 reaction to technological intervention that
 sometimes extended suffering, rather than relieving
 it, medical workers in midcentury Britain began
 experimenting with giving pain-killing and
 life-enhancing drugs according to need, notably at
 London's St. Joseph's Hospice from 1958. In 1967,
 St. Christopher's, a teaching and research hospice,
 opened in London, inspiring others there and
 abroad, as at New Haven, Connecticut, and Montreal,
 Quebec, from 1974, and the movement spread widely.


Hot Line Agreement (1963), a U.S.-U.S.S.R.
 agreement to set up a direct link between the
 leaders of the two superpowers, to reduce the risk
 of nuclear war; the need for such a direct link had
 become apparent during the 
CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS.


Houphout-Boigny, Felix (1905- ), Ivory Coast
 political leader, an organizer of the Ivory Coast
 Democratic Party in 1945, who represented the Ivory
 Coast in the French National Assembly 1946-59. In
 1959, he became the first prime minister and in
 1960 the first president of his country, which
 became a single-party, Western-oriented state with
 close ties to France.

House, Edward Mandell (1858-1938), U.S. political
 adviser, active in Texas politics 1892-1902; an
 honorary Texas colonel, he was known as "Colonel
 House" after 1892. He became a key confidante and
 adviser to President Woodrow 
WILSON in 1912, and
 was Wilson's most important foreign policy advisor
 throughout World War I. House was one of those who
 drafted Wilson's 
FOURTEEN POINTS and was Wilson's
 chief negotiator at the 
PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE of
 1919. Wilson became convinced that House was
 compromising away the American position, and broke
 with him on conclusion of the conference, refusing
 to see him thereafter.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), the
 Communist-hunting committee of the House of
 Representatives, successor to the 
DIES COMMITTEE
 of the 1930s. HUAC achieved a considerable U.S.
 following and worldwide notoriety during the late
 1940s and early 1950s, losing its power as the
 anti-Communist hysteria of the 
MCCARTHY period
 subsided. Its chief early victory was in the case
 of the 
HOLLYWOOD TEN, which was followed by a
 long series of public investigations of the
 entertainment and other industries, and resulted in
 massive 
BLACKLISTING. The committee was somewhat
 eclipsed by the more spectacular witchhunting
 activities of Senator Joseph 
MCCARTHY in the
 early 1950s.

hovercraft (hydrofoil), type of 
AIR-CUSHION

 VEHICLE (ACV) designed to travel over water on a
 self-generated air cushion. Conceived of in 1870,
 the hovercraft was first developed as a practical
 design in 1955 by British engineer Christopher
 Cockerell, making its maiden voyage across the
 English Channel in 1959 and going into regular
 commercial service there in 1968.

Howard Beach case (December 21, 1987), incident in
 which a group of young white racists attacked,
 beat, and pursued two Black Americans at Howard
 Beach, a neighborhood in Queens, New York, on the
 night of December 21, 1987. One of the Black men,
 Michael Griffith, died after being hit by a vehicle
 while fleeing on foot on the Belt Parkway. After a
 highly publicized trial, Scott Kern, Jason Ladone,
 Jon Lester, and Michael Pirone were convicted on
 charges stemming from the attack.

Howe, Louis McHenry (1870-1936), U.S. journalist,
 who became Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT'S key
 political adviser in 1911, and was his personal
 assistant 1915-35. With Eleanor 
ROOSEVELT, Howe
 saw Franklin Roosevelt through polio in 1921,
 brought him back into political life, and then went
 with him to Albany and Washington.

Hoxha, Enver (1908-1985), Albanian teacher, World
 War II resistance leader, a founder of the Albanian
 Communist party in 1941, and from 1944 through his
 death in 1985 leader of the Albanian Communist
 party and government. A hardline Stalinist, Hoxha
 opposed 
DETENTE and closer Soviet bloc-Yugoslav
 relations, breaking with Nikita 
KHRUSHCHEV in
 1957 and with the Soviet Union in 1961. He then
 moved Albania into a close relationship with China,
 breaking with China in 1977, as that country moved
 toward detente with the United States.

Hoyle, Fred (1915- ), British astronomer and writer
 who was one of the main exponents of the 
STEADY

 STATE THEORY of the universe and whose writings
 brought new concepts in astronomy to a wide
 audience.

Hsuan T'ung (Henry P'u Yi; 1906-1967), the last
 Manchu (Ch'ing) emperor of China, who reigned from
 1908 and abdicated on February 12, 1912. He became
 Japanese puppet ruler of Manchuria (Manchukuo) in
 1934, was held by the Soviet Union 1945-50, and was
 then returned to the 
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA,
 where the Chinese imprisoned and in 1959 pardoned
 him. He was the subject of the 1987 film, The Last
 Emperor.

HTLV (human T-lymphotropic virus), alternate name
 for the organism that causes the deadly disease
 
AIDS.

Hua Guofeng (Hua Kuo-feng; 1920- ), Chinese
 Communist leader, who became premier in 1976
 succeeding 
CHOU EN-LAI. Although long a Maoist,
 he approved of the action taken against the 
GANG

 OF FOUR, at the same time attempting once again to
 purge 
DENG XIAOPING and other reformers. However,
 he was within a year sharing power with Deng and
 was forced out of power in 1980 as the reform
 movement took full power in China.

Hua Kuo-feng, the old-style name of Chinese leader
 
HUA Guofeng.

Hubbard, Lafayette Ronald (1911-1986), U.S. writer
 and founder of the Church of Scientology (1952),
 which used an "auditor," a device something like a
 lie detector, to help its members increase control
 over their minds. Although the church itself came
 under attack from many quarters, including the FBI,
 Hubbard's science fiction works and his Dianetics:
 The Modern Science of Mental Health (1950), the
 "bible" of Scientology, attracted wide audiences.


Hubble, Edwin Powell (1889-1953), U.S. astronomer
 who did key work at California's Mt. Wilson
 Observatory, identifying many nebulas-"cloudy"
 masses of stars-as other galaxies and positing that
 the universe is constantly expanding, based on his
 analysis of the 
RED SHIFT in star light. Hubble's
 law, stated in 1929, indicated a constant
 relationship between the speed at which a galaxy is
 receding from Earth and its distance from us; that
 relationship was labeled "Hubble's constant," and
 is basic to much of 20th-century astronomy.

Hue, Battle of (January-March 1968), a
 regimental-strength engagement and long
 house-to-house series of battles between attacking
 North Vietnamese and defending U.S. forces, causing
 many civilian casualties and much damage to the
 city of Hue before the North Vietnamese retreated;
 the North Vietnamese assault was part of the 
TET

 OFFENSIVE.

Huerta, Victoriano (1854-1916), Mexican officer who
 became a general in the army of Porforio 
DAZ, was
 commander of the Mexico City garrison during the
 presidency of Francisco 
MADERO, and led a
 successful coup in February 1913, his forces then
 assassinating Madero and his vice-president, Pino
 Suarez. Huerta ruled as a dictator until July 1914,
 then fleed the country. In exile, he sought to
 regain power, attempting to organize a revolt while
 operating out of Texas, much as Madero had done in
 1910. Arrested and then released by the U.S.
 authorities, he died of illness in El Paso, in
 January 1916.

Hughes, Charles Evans (1862-1948), U.S. lawyer, a
 Republican governor of New York (1907-1910),
 appointed to the Supreme Court in 1910 by William
 Howard 
TAFT. Hughes resigned in 1916 to become
 Republican presidential candidate and was then
 defeated by Woodrow 
WILSON. He was Warren G.
 
HARDING'S secretary of state 1921-25, and was
 appointed chief justice of the United States by
 Herbert 
HOOVER in 1930, retiring in 1941. He
 opposed and helped defeat Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT'S
 attempt to "pack" the Supreme Court with his
 supporters in 1937.

Hukbalahap insurgency (1946-1954), a post-World War
 II rural insurgency in the Philippines, developed
 by previously anti-Japanese, Communist-led
 guerrilla forces demanding land reform; in the late
 1940s they held much of central Luzon. Government
 forces led by defense minister Ramon 
MAGSAYSAY,
 with American military supplies, defeated the
 insurgency, which effectively ended in the spring
 of 1954. Some guerrillas fought on, however,
 providing experience and leadership for the new
 Communist-led insurgency that developed in the
 mid-1960s and still continues.

Hull, Cordell (1871-1955), U.S. lawyer, a Tennessee
 Democratic congressman 1907-21; 1923-31), and
 senator (1931-33), who was Franklin D.
 
ROOSEVELT'S secretary of state (1933-44),
 resigning because of illness and winning a Nobel
 Peace Prize in 1945. As secretary of state, he
 developed the 
GOOD NEIGHBOR POLICY toward Latin
 America, while facing growing German and Japanese
 threats to world peace. During World War II he
 played a substantial role in developing the 
UNITED

 NATIONS; Franklin Roosevelt called him "the father
 of the United Nations."

Hull House, a pioneeering Chicago settlement house
 founded in 1889 by Jane 
ADDAMS and a group of
 co-workers; it served as an incubator for the
 American social work movement and a training ground
 for two generations of social workers. The house
 was named after its first owner, Charles Hull.

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), organism that
 causes the deadly disease 
AIDS.

human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV), alternate name
 for the organism that causes the deadly disease
 
AIDS.

Hump, The, the late 1942 airlift route over the
 Himalayas taken by American planes flying supplies
 from India to Kunming in Nationalist-held China.

Humphrey, Hubert Horatio (1911-78), U.S. teacher,
 Democratic-Farmer-Labor mayor of Minneapolis
 (1945-49) and four-term Minnesota Democratic
 senator from Minnesota (1949-65, 1971-78). He was
 Lyndon 
JOHNSON's  vice president, 1965-69, and
 was defeated for the presidency by Richard 
M.

 NIXON in 1968. On domestic issues he was a liberal
 in the Senate, strongly advocating 
CIVIL RIGHTS
 and health care legislation, though as vice
 president he strongly supported the 
VIETNAM WAR.
 His 1968 presidential campaign was seriously
 damaged by the street fighting outside the 
CHICAGO

 DEMOCRATIC CONVENTION hall, between antiwar
 protesters and the Chicago police, and by the
 coercive tactics employed by Chicago Mayor Richard
 J. 
DALEY's people inside the hall.

Hundred Days, the first 100 days of Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT'S presidency; actually the 104 days
 between the special congressional session opening
 March 9, 1933, and its adjournment on June 16,
 1933, in which an extraordinary body of legislation
 was enacted; in aggregate, it constituted
 Roosevelt's 
NEW DEAL approach to the huge
 problems of the 
GREAT DEPRESSION. These new laws
 established the 
FEDERAL EMERGENCY RELIEF

 ADMINISTRATION, the 
CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS,
 and the 
PUBLIC WORKS ADMINISTRATION; provided for
 farm and home mortgage refinancing and loans to
 small business and farmers; and included passage of
 the 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT and the 
NATIONAL

 INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACT, both highly stimulative
 in that period, though both later ruled
 unconstitutional.

Hundred Flowers Campaign, the brief 1956-57 Chinese
 Communist encouragement of moderate dissent sparked
 by a quotation by 
MAO ZEDONG that began "Let a
 hundred flowers bloom, and a hundred schools of
 thought contend." Dissent did appear and grew very
 swiftly, triggering an equally swift reaction that
 imprisoned and otherwise penalized many
 intellectuals who had dissented.

Hungarian Revolution (1956), unrest that began to
 grow in Hungary during the spring and summer of
 1956, as it did throughout the Soviet bloc,
 following the February 
KHRUSHCHEV SECRET SPEECH.
 Although prime minister Matyas 
RAKOSI resigned in
 July, the unrest broke into open revolution in
 Budapest on October 23. Soviet troops began to
 leave Hungary, hoping to avoid armed conflict. On
 October 24, a new government was formed, headed by
 reformer Imre 
NAGY, with reformer Janos 
KAD'AR
 he ading the Communist Party. The new government
 immediately instituted major democratic reforms,
 released Cardinal 
MINDZENTY, and announced
 Hungary's neutrality and coming withdrawal from the
 
WARSAW PACT. On November 1, Kadar broke with the
 Nagy government, leaving Budapest to form a new
 government. On November 4, Soviet forces returned
 in strength, quickly defeated the lightly armed
 revolutionaries, and took the country, an estimated
 100,000-200,000 Hungarians then fleeing to the
 west. Nagy was soon executed; Kadar led the country
 for 32 years, with Soviet advice and support.

Hungary (Republic of Hungary), until the end of
 World War I part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire,
 then becoming an independent state. The Communist
 revolution of 1919 briefly brought the 
BELA KUN
 government to power; it was followed by the Fascist
 
HORTHY government, allied with Germany in World
 War II. The democratic postwar Hungarian Republic
 lasted from February 1, 1946, until the spring of
 1947, then was supplanted by the one-party
 Communist government that formally became the
 People's Republic on August 20, 1949. The Communist
 government was seriously challenged only in 1956 by
 the failed 
HUNGARIAN REVOLUTION. During the
 
GORBACHEV era Hungary fully participated in the
 wave of changes and reevaluations sweeping the
 Communist world. In October 1989, as part of a
 large body of constitutional changes, the country
 became The Republic of Hungary, dropping the
 People's Republic from its name. The Communist
 Party transformed itself into a social democratic
 party, opposition parties were legalized, and
 Hungary moved toward democratic elections in 1990.


Huntley, Chet (1911-1974 ), U.S. journalist and
 television broadcaster who with David Brinkley
 co-anchored the NBC Huntley-Brinkley Report
 1956-70, covering and interpreting the news in the
 most widely viewed newscast of the period.

Husak, Gustav (1913- ), Czechoslovakian lawyer, a
 Slovak Communist leader in the 1930s and a World
 War II resistance fighter. Imprisoned by his own
 party 1951-60 and then rehabilitated. Husak was a
 deputy premier in Alexander 
DUBCEK'S government
 during the 
PRAGUE SPRING, and then succeeded
 Dubcek as first secretary of the Czech Communist
 party in 1969, staying on to liquidate the reforms
 he had helped initiate. He remained a conservative
 until his 1987 retirement, which was occasioned in
 part by his difficulty in adjusting to the reforms
 of the 
GORBACHEV era, which were strikingly
 similar to those of the Prague Spring.

Hussein I (1935- ), king of Jordan, succeeding to
 the throne in 1953 after his father had been
 declared mentally incompetent to rule. Although a
 moderate who generally sought peace with Israel, he
 took his country into the 
SINAI-SUEZ WAR (THIRD

 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR) of 1967 and was defeated, Israel
 then occupying Jerusalem and the 
WEST BANK,
 although Jordan continued to claim sovereignty. In
 1970 his forces fought, defeated, and expelled the
 substantial 
PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION

 (PLO) guerrilla army fighting from Jordan across
 the Israeli border. He healed the breach with the
 PLO during the early 1980s and continued to press
 for removal of Israeli occupation forces from the
 West Bank and Gaza Strip. In 1988, as the
 
INTIFADA (uprising) grew on the West Bank, he
 gave up all responsibility for the area, paving the
 way for the assertion of a Palestinian state.

Hussein Ibn Ali (1853-1931), leader of the 
ARAB

 REVOLT of 1916, king of the Hejaz, sharif of
 Mecca, and father of 
FAISAL I of Iraq and
 
ABDULLAH IBN HUSSEIN of Transjordan. Under
 pressure from 
IBN SAUD, he abdicated in 1924.

Hussein, Saddam (1937- ), Iraqi 
BA'ATH PARTY
 activist who was a leader of the Ba'ath coup of
 1968; by 1971 he had become de facto leader of
 Iraq, and in 1979 formally became Iraqi president.
 He is Iraq's sole leader, having repressed all
 political opposition. In his early years in power
 he attempted to conciliate Iraq's Kurdish
 population but later faced a renewed full-scale
 Kurdish insurgency, which continues. In 1980, his
 armed forces attacked Iran, beginning the
 
IRAN-IRAQ WAR. In the course of that war his
 forces initiated the widescale use of chemical
 weapons. After its conclusion his forces moved
 against the Kurds, who had been allied with the
 Iranians, again using 
CHEMICAL WARFARE, killing
 thousands and driving hundreds of thousands of into
 exile.

Husseini, Haj Amin al (1893-1974), Palestinian Arab
 leader who, as a Turkish army officer early in
 World War I, joined the 
ARAB REVOLT led by
 
FAISAL and was a member of the British governing
 body for Palestine and a leading Arab nationalist
 during the immediate post-World War I period. In
 1921 the British appointed him Grand Mufti of
 Jerusalem; in 1922 he was elected head of
 Palestine's Supreme Muslim Council. During the
 1920s and 1930s he became the leading Palestinian
 Arab nationalist, resisting British occupation of
 and increasing Jewish migration into Palestine. In
 1936 he founded and became chairman of the Arab
 Higher Committee, and played a major role in
 initiating the 
PALESTINIAN GENERAL STRIKE AND

 REVOLT of 1936-39. In 1937 the British outlawed
 his committee and dissolved the Supreme Muslim
 Council; Husseini then left Palestine, continuing
 to lead the revolt from other Arab countries.
 During World War II he worked for the Nazis,
 spending much of the war in Germany. In 1946, the
 
ARAB LEAGUE reconstituted the Arab Higher
 Committee; he became its president and worked to
 organize the Arabs of Palestine for the approaching
 civil war, but never regained the preeminent
 position he had occupied before the war. After the
 Arab defeat in 1948 he steadily lost influence,
 although continuing to be a historical figure in
 the Arab world.

Huxley, Julian Sorell (1887-1975), British
 biologist and writer, grandson of biologist and
 early Darwin supporter Thomas Henry Huxley, and
 brother of novelist and visionary Aldous Huxley. He
 worked variously in zoology, ecology, ethology, and
 genetics, and his widely read written works fused
 beliefs in evolution and humanism; so it was
 fitting that from 1946 to 1948 he served as the
 first director general of 
UNESCO (United Nations
 Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
 Organization).

Hu Yaobang (Hu Yao-pang; 1915-89), a protege and
 ally of Deng 
XIAOPING who joined the Chinese
 Communist party in the late 1933, was a political
 officer during the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR, and was a
 Communist official after the war. He was purged
 with Deng in the mid-1960s, came back to power with
 him and became chairman of the Communist party in
 1981. He was the leading Chinese democratic
 reformer of his time, falling from power in the
 conservative backlash that followed the student
 demonstrations of 1986. His death generated the
 massive prodemocratic 
CHINESE STUDENT

 DEMONSTRATIONS of 1989.

Hu Yao-pang, the old-style name of Chinese leader
 
HU YAOBANG.

Hwai Hai, Battle of (November 1948-January 1949), a
 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR battle involving an estimated 1
 million combatants, in which the attacking Central
 Plains and East China Communist field armies
 destroyed the Nationalist Seventh Army Group and
 routed the Second Army Group, with Nationalist
 losses of an estimated 250,000 men. It was the last
 major battle of the war; on January 22, 1949,
 Peking fell.

Hyatt Regency walkway collapse (July 17, 1981),
 collapse of two interior suspended walkways over
 the atrium lobby of the Hyatt Regency hotel in
 Kansas City, one atop the other falling on the
 crowded dance floor below; 113 people were killed
 and 186 more were injured, many of them seriously.


hydrofoil, alternate name for a 
HOVERCRAFT, a
 type of 
AIR-CUSHION VEHICLE developed in 1955 by
 Christopher Cockerell.

hydrogen bomb (H-bomb), explosive device using an
 
ATOMIC BOMB to trigger 
NUCLEAR FUSION,
 producing much heat and therefore called a
 thermonuclear device. Enrico 
FERMI and Edward
 
TELLER recognized the possibility of building
 what they called a "Super" as early as 1942, but
 the idea received little funding until 1949 when
 the Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb.
 Then properly funded, Teller led the project to
 build the H-bomb, aided by the calculating power of
 the 
MANIAC COMPUTER developed by John von
 
NEUMANN. They successfully tested the bomb first
 at 
ENIWETOK on November 1, 1952, and two years
 later at 
BIKINI. After the Russians built their
 own H-bomb in 1953 and the British in 1957, the
 
ARMS RACE moved to a new level, increasing
 pressure for controlling, reducing, or eliminating
 nuclear weapons.

Iacocca, Lee Anthony (1924- ), U.S. engineer, who
 became president of the Ford Motor Company,
 1970-78, moving in 1978 to become president and
 later chairman of Chrysler Corporation, and a
 leading spokesperson for corporate interests. He
 also spoke for the concept of a multiethnic,
 immigrant-built United States during his
 chairmanship of the drive to restore 
ELLIS ISLAND
 and the Statue of Liberty in the mid-1980s.

Ia Drang, Battle of (October-November 1965),
 regimental-strength engagement between North
 Vietnamese and U.S. army units in the Ia Drang
 valley, near the Vietnam-Cambodia border, and the
 first major battle between large U.S. and North
 Vietnamese army units of the 
VIETNAM WAR.

IAEA, the initials of the 
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC

 ENERGY AGENCY.

Ibarruri, Dolores ("La Pasionaria;" 1895-1989),
 Spanish Communist Party leader, a founder of her
 party in 1920, and in parliament 1936-39. A
 powerful speaker, she became one of the key symbols
 of the Republic during the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR. The
 war lost, she fled to the Soviet Union, returning
 to Spain and a seat in parliament after the death
 of Francisco 
FRANCO.

Ibn Saud (Abd al-Aziz Ibn Saud; 1880-1953), Saudi
 Arabian king, who took control of the Nejd district
 of Arabia in the period 1902-06 and had taken much
 of eastern Arabia by 1913. During World War I he
 was formally but passively allied with the British
 against the Turks after 1915. He won control of
 western Arabia (the Hejaz) in 1925 after a long
 civil war with the Hashemite forces of 
HUSSEIN IBN

 ALI. He became king of the new nation of Saudi
 Arabia in 1932 and granted the first Arabian oil
 concession to Standard Oil in 1933, thereafter
 becoming the first of the wealthy oil potentates of
 the Middle East.

IBRD, the initials of the 
INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR

 RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, a multinational
 investment bank and 
UNITED NATIONS agency that is
 part of the 
WORLD BANK.

ICBM, popular shorthand for the 
INTERCONTINENTAL

 BALLISTIC MISSILE, first developed in 1954.

Iceland (Republic of Iceland), until 1918 an island
 country ruled by Denmark; Iceland achieved internal
 autonomy in 1918 and became an independent state on
 June 17, 1944, after the World War II Allied
 occupation.

Ickes, Harold LeClaire (1874-1952), U.S. lawyer and
 political leader, a Republican who supported
 Theodore 
ROOSEVELT'S BULL MOOSE PARTY and Robert
 
LA FOLLETTE'S PROGRESSIVE PARTY. In 1933 he
 became Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT'S strongly
 conservationist secretary of the interior and head
 of the 
PUBLIC WORKS ADMINISTRATION. Strong-willed
 and outspoken, he was sharply criticized by
 business interests desiring to exploit federal
 lands and responded in kind. He resigned in 1946
 after a difference of opinion with President Harry
 S. 
TRUMAN.

IDA, the initials of the 
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

 ASSOCIATION, a 
UNITED NATIONS agency engaged in
 long-term international lending to developing
 nations; part of the 
WORLD BANK.

Idaho Falls nuclear explosion (January 3, 1961), an
 explosion at the Idaho Falls, Idaho, nuclear
 reactor that killed three people; until the
 
KERR-MCGEE nuclear accident of 1986, these were
 the only reported direct deaths due to nuclear
 accident in the United States.

IFC, the initials of the 
INTERNATIONAL FINANCE
 
CORPORATION, a multinational investment bank and
 
UNITED NATIONS agency; part of the 
WORLD BANK.


If I turn traitor to the cause I now pledge, may
 this hand wither from the arm I now raise, pledge
 taken by 3,000 Jewish-American and Italian-American
 women garment workers on the eve of the
 waistmakers' strike of 1909-10.

I have a dream, the celebrated phrase in the speech
 by Martin Luther 
KING, Jr., at the 
MARCH ON
 
WASHINGTON, August 28, 1963.

I have sinned!, announcement by the Reverend Jimmy
 
SWAGGART, tearfully addressing a national
 television audience on February 21, 1988, after
 having been accused of unbecoming sexual conduct.


Il Duce (The Leader), a popular alternate name for
 Benito 
MUSSOLINI.

IMF, the initials of the 
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY

 FUND, a multinational banking fund and 
UN
 agency.

Inchon landings (September 15, 1950), surprise
 divisional-strength amphibious landings of 
UNITED

 NATIONS forces at 
INCHON on the east coast of
 Korea, near Seoul, during the second phase of the
 
KOREAN WAR. UN forces quickly broke through North
 Korean defenses, and 
UN defensive forces to the
 south broke out to meet them at and retake Seoul.
 Combined 
UN forces then pursued North Korean
 forces north toward the 38th Parallel and the Yalu
 River boundary with the 
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF

 CHINA.

India (Republic of India), until 1947 part of
 British India, which also dominated many minor,
 nominally independent states on the subcontinent.
 After the long struggle for independence led by
 Mohandas K. 
GHANDI, Jawaharlal 
NEHRU, and their
 associates, British India was split into the new
 nations of India and 
PAKISTAN, in the disastrous
 
PARTITION OF INDIA; the minor states, including
 Kashmir, were thereafter sources of dispute,
 sometimes leading to war. Indian independence came
 on August 15, 1947.

India, Japanese invasion of (March-September 1944),
 World War II attack across the Chindwin River by
 Japanese forces in early March, besieging Imphal
 and Kohima. Kohima was relieved in late April and
 Imphal in late June, the Japanese then retreating
 with heavy losses.

India, partition of (August 15, 1947), the division
 of what had been British-ruled India into the new
 nations of India and Pakistan, on August 15, 1947.
 The transfer of power itself occurred without
 incident, but was accompanied by huge internal
 migrations and an immense wave of communal rioting
 and mass murder, as the Hindu-Moslem riots that had
 been mounting during 1946 and 1947 peaked.
 Estimates vary widely; in the 6 weeks following the
 partition, at least 10 million and as many as 18
 million people migrated between the two countries.
 At least 500,000 and probably closer to l million
 died in that period.

Indian National Congress, the formal name of
 India's 
CONGRESS PARTY.

India-Pakistan War of 1965 (May-September 1965),
 conflict in which a successful Pakistani military
 action in the Rann of Kutch encouraged
 division-strength Pakistani armored attack across
 the Kashmir cease-fire line on September l, 1965;
 it was accompanied by air strikes on Indian
 airfields. On September 6, Indian forces attacked
 in the Punjab, threatening Lahore. The 
UNITED

 NATIONS mediated a cease-fire and withdrawal on
 September 27, and at Tashkent on January 19, 1966,
 the parties agreed to withdraw and fully end
 hostilities.

India-Pakistan War of 1971 (December 1971),
 conflict that began on December 3, with a major,
 unsuccessful Pakistani air attack on Indian
 airfields, and only slightly more successful ground
 attacks in Kashmir. India had received an estimated
 6 million refugees from East Pakistan after the
 beginning of the 
BANGLADESH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
 in March, was supporting Bangladesh insurgent
 forces, and was prepared for a Pakistani attack.
 Major Indian forces immediately invaded East
 Pakistan, and by December 15 they were successfully
 counterattacking in Kashmir. The Indians took Dacca
 on December 16 and with it over 90,000 Pakistani
 prisoners; independent Bangladesh effectively came
 into being on that day. Fighting ended with the
 cease-fire of December 17, with peace agreements
 following in July and August.

Indochina War (1946-54), conflict that began as
 guerrilla warfare, in December 1946, between France
 and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the French
 attempting to hold Indochina as part of the French
 Union and the Vietnamese, led by 
HO CHI MINH,
 demanding full independence. In 1949 the French
 recognized the 
BAO DAI government of Vietnam, but
 insurgent forces continued to gain strength,
 linking up with the 
PATHET LAO and 
KHMER ROUGE
 (Laotian and Cambodian Communist forces) during
 1950-51. In May 1954 the French suffered a crushing
 defeat at 
DIEN BIEN PHU; in July 1954 at Geneva,
 a cease-fire agreement provided for withdrawal of
 French troops from Vietnam and division of the
 country into North and South Vietnam. The balance
 of the long 
VIETNAMESE CIVIL WAR and 
VIETNAM

 WAR lay ahead.

Indochina, occupation of (September, 1940), taking
 and occupation of what was then French Indochina by
 Japanese troops, starting on September 22, 1940;
 from Indochina, Japanese forces moved into southern
 China and prepared for the coming invasion of the
 rest of southeast Asia.

Indonesia (Republic of Indonesia), until 1949 the
 Netherlands colony of the Netherlands East Indies.
 Occupied by Japanese forces during World War II,
 independence movement leaders set up an independent
 republic on August 17, 1945, and then fought a
 4-year war against the Dutch, which was settled by
 Dutch withdrawal and recognition of Indonesia in
 December 1949. The first president of the new
 nation was 
SUKARNO (1949-66), who was succeeded
 by the more conservative 
SUHARTO (1966- ).

Indonesian political massacres (October
 1965-January 1966), the mass murders of an
 estimated 200,000-300,000 Communists, other
 dissidents, and bystanders by the Indonesian army
 and village militia, following an unsuccessful coup
 attempt by the Communist party of Indonesia. Tens
 of thousands of others were arrested, many of whom
 were later executed in prison, and 25,000-30,000
 were released in 1979.

Indonesian War of Independence (1945-49), conflict
 that began in October 1945, as Dutch and British
 troops occupied Indonesia, ignoring 
SUKARNO'S
 declaration of Indonesian independence of August
 17, 1945. Surabaya fell in November, although
 guerrilla fighting continued. In November 1946, the
 Cheribon Agreement provided for the establishment
 of the Republic of Indonesia within a larger United
 States of Indonesia, but with a continuing Dutch
 presence. Meanwhile, the guerrilla war continued,
 along with concurrent Islamic insurgency against
 both the Dutch and the Republic. During 1947 and
 1948, Dutch forces consolidated their hold on
 Indonesia, taking the republican capital of
 Jogjakarta in December 1948. But 
UNITED NATIONS
 intervention, coupled with continuing guerrilla
 insurgency, ultimately caused the Dutch to withdraw
 from Indonesia; a cease-fire ended hostilities on
 May 7, 1949, and the Republic of Indonesia came
 into being on August 15, 1950.

Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a U.S.
 syndicalist labor organization, founded in 1905 by
 Western Federation of Miners leader William D.
 
HAYWOOD, socialist leader Eugene V. 
DEBS, and
 Socialist Labor Party leader Daniel 
DE LEON as an
 industrial, rather than an AFL-style craft union.
 It eschewed political action, instead advocating
 direct industrial action, and it was
 violence-prone, which turned away the Western
 Federation of Miners in 1907, De Leon in 1908, and
 later Debs as well. Haywood, accused of hiring out
 the murder of Governor Frank Steunenberg of Idaho,
 was defended by Clarence 
DARROW and acquitted in
 1907. The most notable victory of the IWW was the
 
LAWRENCE TEXTILE STRIKE of 1912; its most notable
 defeat, the Passaic textile strike of 1913. But win
 or lose, the organization never developed staying
 power, instead attempting to build all of its
 actions into violent revolutionary confrontations.
 The organization did build its membership up to an
 estimated 50,000-100,000 by 1917, but its
 opposition to World War I led to heavy government
 attack, coupled with a good deal of illegal
 violence directed against its members. In November
 1917, its entire leadership was arrested; hundreds
 were ultimately convicted of sedition, including
 Haywood, who fled to the Soviet Union and died
 there in 1928. The organization was never again a
 force on the American scene, though many of its
 members, such as Elizabeth Gurley 
FLYNN, went
 into the 
COMMUNIST PARTY OF THE UNITED STATES.

influenza pandemic (1918-19), the greatest natural
 disaster of the 20th century, in which an estimated
 25-50 million people died as the result of a
 largely untreatable pandemic that ultimately
 affected most of the world's inhabited areas, often
 spread by and among soldiers and sailors. Probably
 originating in Asia, the 
VIRUS was first
 identified in the United States at Fort Riley,
 Kansas, but was named "Spanish flu" for its
 severity in Spain. In some places, such as the
 United States, people wore surgical masks and many
 public institutions, shops, and businesses closed
 down for a time. In the 1957-58 
ASIAN FLU
 pandemic, many more people became ill, but the
 disease was less lethal, mostly because
 
ANTIBIOTICS had been developed to treat secondary
 infection.

infrared, type of high-frequency 
RADIATION beyond
 the red end of the visible part of the
 electromagnetic spectrum; the form of most heat
 produced by the Sun or lamps. Discovered in 1800,
 infrared radiation was put to wide use only in the
 20th century, as in heat-seeking 
MISSILES,
 thermal photographs made in the dark or in fog,
 infrared analysis of cosmic objects in 
RADIO

 ASTRONOMY, and thermal imaging in medicine.

INF Treaty (Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty),
 agreement to destroy all Soviet and American
 
INTERMEDIATE RANGE NUCLEAR MISSILES, signed by
 U.S. president Ronald 
REAGAN and U.S.S.R. premier
 Mikhail 
GORBACHEV at the 
WASHINGTON SUMMIT, on
 December 8, 1987, the first agreement to destroy a
 whole class of nuclear weapons. The treaty was
 subsequently ratified by the U.S. Senate and the
 Supreme Soviet, the formal treaty documents being
 exchanged by the two leaders at the 
MOSCOW

 SUMMIT, on June 1, 1988.

Inkatha movement, South African Zulu organization,
 led by Chief Gatsha 
BUTHELEZI, which pursued a
 declared path of negotiation toward the formation
 of a multiracial government. During the 1980s,
 Inkatha activists were often accused of attacks on
 other South African Black groups, often in pursuit
 of Zulu tribal goals. In response, Inkatha declared
 in 1988 that other Blacks might join if they so
 desired.

Inonu, Ismet (1884-1973), Turkish officer, who saw
 service in the Balkans in World War I, then joining
 
ATATURK (Mustapha Kemal) in the seizure of power
 and in the 
GREEK-TURKISH WAR, he became first
 prime minister of the Turkish republic. He
 succeeded Ataturk as president (1938-50), moved
 further and further away from authoritarianism
 during the postwar period, was prime minister
 again, 1961-65, of a left-leaning democratic
 coalition, and after 1965 was out of power.

Inouye, Daniel Ken (1924- ), U.S. lawyer,
 Democratic majority leader of the Hawaiian
 territorial House of Representatives and the
 Hawaiian territorial Senate; on the winning of
 Hawaiian statehood in 1959 he became simultaneously
 the first Hawaiian and the first Japanese-American
 congressman. A senator from Hawaii from 1962, he
 served on the Senate 
WATERGATE committee and was
 chairman of the Senate 
IRAN-CONTRA committee.

insider trading scandal, 1980s U.S. stock market
 scandal involving the illegal use of inside
 information for profit. Several rather low-level
 brokerage firm employees were charged in 1986, many
 of them pleading guilty. The best known of these
 was Drexel Burnham Lambert employee Dennis Levine.
 Wealthy stock market figure Ivan 
BOESKY also was
 charged, winning some clemency by gathering
 information for the government on others, although
 also imprisoned and heavily fined. The set of
 related cases generated by the scandal continued
 into the late 1980s, with considerable focus upon
 Drexel Burnham Lambert and some of its key
 personnel.

insulin, vital 
HORMONE excreted by the pancreas,
 lack of which produces diabetes; first deduced and
 named in 1909 but finally extracted in 1921 by
 Canadian physician Frederick Grant 
BANTING and
 Charles Best. They first successfully treated a
 diabetic patient with an insulin injection in 1922.
 For this discovery, Banting and John J. R. Macleod,
 in whose laboratory he had worked, won the 1923
 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, though Best
 was not so honored. In 1955 Frederick Sanger
 established the structure of insulin, winning the
 1958 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. The hormone was
 finally synthesized in the mid-1960s, and in 1982
 the 
FDA approved the marketing of insulin made by
 bacteria, the first product of 
GENETIC

 ENGINEERING offered commercially.

Insull, Samuel (1860-1938), U.S. midwestern utility
 magnate of the 1920s, whose companies failed in
 1932, with huge losses by small investors. On the
 verge of indictment, he fled to Europe but was
 ultimately forced to return to the United States,
 where he was tried and acquitted, his situation and
 case providing a focus for those who felt it
 necessary to regulate utilities and securities much
 more closely, and subsequently did so.

intelligence quotient (IQ), score on the
 intelligence test developed in the early 20th
 century by Alfred 
BINET and later adapted for
 American use at Stanford University, as the
 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale test. That and
 other IQ tests were at first regarded as neutral
 and applicable to all. Some believers in 
EUGENICS
 even regarded the IQ as measuring genetically
 determined ability, rather than ability determined
 in any way by cultural exposure; Arthur 
JENSEN
 was a modern spokesman for that point of view. But
 by midcentury many critics were questioning what
 intelligence tests actually "measured" and whether
 they favored some groups in society over others.
 Scores were treated with more caution, and some
 tests were modified so that measurement of
 intellectual ability was less affected by cultural
 background.

Intelsat (
INternational 
TELecommunications
 
SATellite Consortium), worldwide 
SATELLITE
 communications system, founded as an 18-nation
 joint venture in 1964; by the 1980s it had grown to
 more than 100 countries, the U.S. arm being
 
COMSAT (
COMmunications 
SATellite
 Corporation). A worldwide satellite communications
 system was visualized as early as 1945 by A. C.
 Clark in Wireless World, but the first satellite to
 relay trans-Atlantic signals was Telstar 1,
 launched from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962. The
 first Intelsat satellite, Early Bird (Intelsat 1),
 was launched in 1965.

intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM),
 long-range (over 5,500 km) 
BALLISTIC MISSILE
 equipped with one or more nuclear warheads,
 developed in the United States in 1954, largely by
 imported German scientists, many of whom had worked
 on the 
V-1 AND V-2 BOMBS during World War II.
 Russian teams, headed by Valentin 
GLUSHKO,
 developed an ICBM in 1957. Medium-range versions
 are called 
INTERMEDIATE RANGE BALLISTIC MISSILES
 (IRBMs) or (as in connection with the 1988 
INF

 TREATY) intermediate range nuclear missiles. The
 two are the major means by which the United States
 and the Soviet Union are capable of destroying each
 other and much of humanity. In 1963, during the
 
COLD WAR, the United States set up an extensive
 "early warning" radar system in Greenland, England,
 and Alaska for detecting 
ICBMs.

interferon, protein produced naturally in the body
 to fight 
VIRUSES; first discovered in 1957 by
 Alick Isaacs and Jean Lindemann. Interferon was one
 of the first substances produced by bacteria
 altered through 
GENETIC ENGINEERING in 1980, and
 has been used to combat conditions such as herpes
 infections, warts, and tumors.

Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty, the full name
 of the 1987 
REAGAN-GORBACHEV INF TREATY, in which
 the superpowers for the first time agreed to
 destroy a whole class of nuclear weapons.

intermediate range ballistic missile (IRBM),
 medium-range version of the 
INTERCONTINENTAL

 BALLISTIC MISSILE (ICBM). This kind of 
MISSILE,
 which directly threatened Europe, was the main
 subject of the 1987 
INF TREATY, being defined as
 those with a range of 500-5,000 kilometers, or
 300-3400 miles.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), a
 multinational independent agency loosely associated
 with the 
UNITED NATIONS, established in 1957 to
 foster the peaceful uses of 
ATOMIC ENERGY while
 guarding against the development of atomic warfare
 capability. The IAEA has developed activity in
 regard to nuclear safety but has had little or no
 impact on the development of nuclear weapons and
 their proliferation.

International Bank for Reconstruction and
 Development (IBRD), a multinational investment
 bank established by the 
BRETTON WOODS CONFERENCE
 of 1944, that became a 
UNITED NATIONS agency in
 1947. The IBRD makes long-term loans and provides
 several kinds of specialized technical and other
 assistance to foster the industrial development of
 the less developed nations of the world. The IBRD,
 the 
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION (IDA),
 and the 
INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION (IFC)
 are together often informally called the 
WORLD

 BANK.

International Brigades, military units composed of
 an estimated 40,000 volunteers from 53 countries
 who fought on the Republican side in the 
SPANISH

 CIVIL WAR, suffering an estimated 12,000-15,000
 dead and many thousands of other casualties.
 Organized by the 
COMINTERN, an estimated 60% of
 brigade members were Communists and 40% were
 non-Communists. The first groups arrived in October
 1936, and the first brigade units went into battle
 in early November at the seige of Madrid. During
 1937 the number of volunteers entering the brigades
 abroad dropped sharply, and by the end of the war
 they were manned largely by Spanish soldiers. The
 last major action in which foreign brigade members
 participated was the Battle of the 
EBRO in 1938,
 and the foreigners were withdrawn in November 1938.
 From the beginning of the war, there were other
 foreigners fighting on the Loyalist side in Spain
 as well, including some hundreds who fought in the
 anarchist 
POUM.

International Court of Justice, the Geneva-based
 predecessor of the 
WORLD COURT; it was
 established as the Permanent Court of International
 Justice in the 
COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 in 1919.

International Criminal Police Organization
 (INTERPOL), a worldwide international crime
 information center organized in 1923; most of the
 nations of the world are members, including the
 nations of the Communist world, which began to join
 in the late 1980s.

International Development Association (IDA), a
 
UNITED NATIONS agency established in 1960 that
 extends long-term credits to the world's poorer
 countries, mainly for such infrastructural
 developments as schools, roads, dams, power
 facilities, and industrial plants, and also for the
 development of rural productivity. The IDA, the
 
INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND

 DEVELOPMENT (IBRD), and the 
INTERNATIONAL FINANCE

 CORPORATION (IFC), are together often informally
 called the 
WORLD BANK.

International Fellowship of Reconciliation (IFOR),
 an international peace-fostering, nonviolent
 religious organization, founded in 1919, that
 works, with other peace groups, to promote further
 education on peace-connected issues throughout the
 world; members have included Martin Luther 
KING

 JR., and Mohandas 
GANDHI.

International Finance Corporation (IFC), a
 multinational investment bank established in 1956
 that became a 
UNITED NATIONS agency in 1957; it
 makes loans, invests in, and provides technical and
 other forms of assistance to private and mixed
 private-public business organizations in developing
 nations. The IFC, the 
INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR

 RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT (IBRD), and the
 
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION (IDA) are
 together often informally called the 
WORLD BANK.


International Geophysical Year (IGY), 18-month
 period from July 1957 to December 1958, during
 which more than 70 nations and some 30,000
 scientists cooperated in research on the Earth and
 the universe. New information about the Earth's
 crust, especially under the oceans, gave support to
 the theory of 
PLATE TECTONICS. 
SATELLITES
 launched during the IGY discovered the 
VAN ALLEN

 BELTS and the charged particles that cause
 auroras. Work at 
ANTARCTICA proved so fruitful
 that agreement was later reached to set aside the
 continent as an unmilitarized area for scientific
 research. Among the other areas that benefited from
 the IGY cooperation were climatology, 
COSMIC

 RAYS, and the nature of the Earth's magnetic
 field.

International Labor Organization (ILO), a body
 established as part of the 
COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE

 OF NATIONS in 1919; in 1946 it became a UN agency.
 From its headquarters in Geneva it has since its
 establishment organized conferences, attempted to
 set recommended international work standards, run a
 publication program, and engaged in a variety of
 other research and educational activities.

International Monetary Fund (IMF), a multinational
 banking fund established by the 
BRETTON WOODS

 CONFERENCE of 1944; it became a 
UNITED NATIONS
 agency in 1947. The IMF attempts to maintain
 international exchange stability and to help
 members correct international balance of payment
 problems by extending credit, often demanding that
 creditor nations adopt difficult internal austerity
 programs as a credit condition. During the 1970s
 and 1980s, as world economic imbalances mounted,
 and huge 
THIRD WORLD debts became a worldwide
 debt crisis, the IMF reorganized itself and raised
 its capital limits again and again, with only
 marginally effective results and with increasing
 pressure from lenders to stiffen loan requirements
 and from borrowers to loosen them.

International Overseas Services (IOS) scandal, the
 1970-72 failure of Bernard Cornfeld's large
 Swiss-based group of mutual funds, which had for
 over a decade guaranteed unrealistically high rates
 of return to gullible small investors while funding
 the expensive life-style of Cornfeld and many of
 his associates. Finally alerted to the highly
 questionable financial practices of IOS, many
 investors cashed in what was left of their
 investments in 1970, precipitating a crisis.
 Financier Robert Vesco then bought control of IOS
 from Cornfeld, looted over $224 million of the
 remaining assets, and ultimately avoided
 extradition on fraud and bribery charges, buying
 refuge in Costa Rica, and in the 1980s finding
 refuge in Cuba, in return for unspecified services
 to the Cuban government.

International Telecommunications Satellite
 Organization, full formal name of the worldwide
 
SATELLITE communications system, 
INTELSAT,
 founded in 1964.

INTERPOL, an acronym for the 
INTERNATIONAL

 CRIMINAL POLICE ORGANIZATION.

Intifada (Uprising), the Palestinian uprising on
 the 
WEST BANK of the Jordan river and the 
GAZA

 STRIP, beginning in 1988, that focused world
 attention on the two-decades-long Israeli
 occupation of and the national aspirations of the
 Palestinian populations of both areas. In the
 course of the Intifada, hundreds of Palestinians
 were killed and thousands injured, most of them
 teenagers. Jordan withdrew from the West Bank, a
 Palestinian state was proclaimed, and the
 
PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO) sought a
 more moderate identity, as its leaders attempted to
 pursue negotiations with Israel toward the
 establishment of a Palestinian state.

intrauterine device (IUD), full name of the common
 contraceptive implant, such as the 
DALKON SHIELD.


Intrepid, the World War II code name of British
 intelligence organizer William 
STEPHENSON.

Inukai Tsuyohi (1855-1932), Japanese political
 leader who became prime minister in 1931 and who
 resisted the developing military control of Japan
 and the occupation of Manchuria. He was
 assassinated by a group of naval officers in 1932,
 his assassination essentially ending Japanese
 democracy in that period and ushering in the period
 of military control that took Japan into the war
 with China and World War II, ending with Japan's
 defeat in 1945.

in vitro fertilization, joining of a human egg and
 sperm in an artificial setting outside of the body,
 the fertilized egg later being implanted into the
 womb for normal childbirth; in vitro (New Latin for
 "in glass") refers to the test-tube setting for the
 fertilization. The technique, developed by British
 gynecologist-obstetrician Patrick 
STEPTOE, was
 first used successfully in late 1977, with the
 resulting fully normal 
TEST-TUBE BABY, Louise
 
BROWN, being delivered by cesarean section on
 July 25, 1978. In vitro fertilization has since
 been widely used by infertile couples, despite some
 controversy about the proper limits of human
 intervention in life processes; the first U.S.
 clinic opened in 1980.

ionosphere, electrically charged layer of air in
 the upper atmosphere, from about 30-400 miles up,
 that reflects 
RADIO waves, aiding long-distance
 transmission. In 1902 British mathematician Oliver
 Heaviside and American electrical engineer Arthur
 E. Kennelly independently predicted the existence
 of such a layer, then called the 
HEAVISIDE or
 
KENNELLY-HEAVISIDE LAYER; it was confirmed in
 1924 by Edward Appleton and M. F. Barett. Daily and
 seasonal variations in the degree of ionization
 affect the quality of radio transmission;
 transmission at night is more powerful, because the
 ionosphere is ionized-that is, electrically
 charged-by sunlight.

Iowa gun turret explosion (April 19, 1989), an
 explosion within a 16-inch armored gun turret of
 the battleship U.S.S. Iowa that left 47 sailors
 dead, all of them in the five top levels of the
 turret; only those on the sealed sixth level of the
 turret survived.

I pledge you, I pledge myself, a new deal for the
 American people, comment by Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT, in his acceptance speech to the
 Democratic nominating convention of 1932.

IQ, popular shorthand for 
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT
 score and intelligence test developed in the early
 20th century by Alfred 
BINET.

Iran, an independent state at the beginning of the
 20th century, but one that had long experienced
 Russian and British imperial penetration, losing
 substantial portions of its territory to Russia in
 the 19th century, and granting major economic
 concessions to British interests. Iranian
 nationalists forced a constitution on the
 Russian-supported shah in 1906, precipitating a
 series of coups and countercoups that resulted in
 Russian occupation of much of northern Iran by
 1914. During World War I, Iran was neutral but
 still a battleground for Turkish and Allied forces.
 After the war, Iran was an independent state, from
 1921 led by Reza Khan 
PAHLEVI, who became the
 first Pahlevi shah (1926-41). At the same time, it
 was heavily penetrated by British oil interests.
 Early in World War II the shah resisted Allied use
 of Iran and was forced to resign in favor of his
 young son, Muhammed Reza 
PAHLEVI. During the
 early 1950s, the crisis precipitated by the
 nationalization of Iran's oil industry was
 ultimately resolved by the American-supported army
 coup that toppled the 
MOSSADEGH government and
 returned the shah to power. In 1979, the shah was
 deposed in the 
IRANIAN REVOLUTION, which brought
 the Islamic Republic of Ayatollah Ruhollah
 
KHOMEINI to power and with it the triumph of
 Islamic fundamentalism, the 
IRAN HOSTAGE CRISIS,
 the 
IRAN-IRAQ WAR, the 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR, the
 Satanic Verses murder incitements, and a major
 increase in hostage-taking and international
 terrorism. With the death of Khomeini, on June 3,
 1989, a new chapter in Iranian history began.

Iran-Contra Affair (1985- ), a 
REAGAN
 administration attempt to trade the sale of arms to
 Iran for American hostages held in Lebanon, coupled
 with a plan to use the profits derived from such
 arms sales to buy and send arms to the Nicaraguan
 
CONTRAS. The exposure of both plans created a
 massive U.S. political scandal, as the first was
 entirely opposite to the stated
 no-negotiation-with-terrorists policy of the United
 States, and the second was widely perceived to
 contravene the spirit and probably the letter of
 Congressional restrictions on military aid to the
 Contras. With Israeli involvement, and the
 participation of White House staff members Oliver
 
NORTH, Robert 
MCFARLANE, John 
POINDEXTER, CIA
 chief William 
CASEY, and others inside and
 outside the White House, at least 2,000 TOW
 missiles were shipped to Iran during 1985 and 1986
 while covert Contra supply operations continued.
 Some newspaper stories hinted at the
 arms-for-hostages scandal during 1986. The covert
 Contra supply operation was exposed after the
 confession of pilot Eugene Hasenfus, shot down on a
 covert mission over Nicaragua on October 5, 1986.
 The arms-for-hostages story was broken by the
 Beirut newspaper Al Shiraa on November 3, 1986. The
 complex set of scandals then unfolded, amid a
 series of conflicting statements from President
 Reagan and other administration officials, much of
 it during 41 days of televised Congressional
 committee hearings. Both operations were
 discontinued, the Reagan administration was greatly
 discredited, the Contra aid cause was destroyed,
 and the release of one hostage may have been
 assisted, although other hostages were taken during
 the period. On November 25, 1986, Lieutenant
 Colonel North was dismissed from his White House
 National Security Council post, and Admiral
 Poindexter resigned as national security advisor.
 CIA director Casey died before giving testimony in
 the case. In March 1988, North, Poindexter,
 businessman Albert 
HAKIM, and retired general
 Richard V. 
SECORD were indicted in connection
 with the scandal. After a long jury trial, North
 was convicted on three felony counts in May 1989;
 he planned to appeal the conviction. Other
 Iran-Contra trials were still in process.

Iran hostage crisis, international crisis that
 began with the Iranian seizure of 66 American
 hostages at the U.S. embassy in Tehran on November
 4, 1979. Although 14 were subsequently released, 52
 hostages were held for 444 days while the Iranian
 government attempted to force concessions of
 several kinds from the United States. Although Iran
 did not succeed in forcing return of the former
 shah, Mohammed Reza 
PAHLEVI, the ultimate
 settlement included the release of frozen Iranian
 assets, with direct payment of almost $3 billion,
 and the establishment of an international court to
 hear Iranian and United States claims. 
UNITED

 NATIONS and 
WORLD COURT condemnations of the
 Iranian action were fruitless, as was an aborted
 American armed forces hostage rescue operation
 mounted on April 24, 1980. The hostage crisis was a
 major factor in the defeat of Jimmy 
CARTER in the
 1980 presidential elections, the hostages being
 released on the day he was succeeded in office by
 Ronald 
REAGAN, January 20, 1981.

Iranian Revolution, the overthrow of the government
 of Shah Mohammed Reza 
PAHLEVI of Iran, who fled
 his country on January 16, 1979, after a mounting
 series of strikes and demonstrations during 1978,
 coupled with loss of army support, had made it
 impossible to continue to rule. Before leaving he
 appointed National Front leader Shahpur Bakhtiar
 premier of Iran, but Bakhtiar's government was not
 viable. Ayatollah Ruhollah 
KHOMEINI returned from
 exile in France on February 1; his fundamentalist
 forces and their allies seized power on February
 11, Bakhtiar then resigning and Khomeini taking
 over effective control of the country. Later that
 year (December 2-3) Khomeini was formally named
 religious and de facto secular leader of the Shiite
 Islamic state. In June 1981, he removed the secular
 and somewhat more moderate Iranian president, Abol
 Hasan Bani-Sadr, who subsequently became leader of
 an exile organization, and Iran became in practice
 an entirely Islamic fundamentalist state.

Iran-Iraq War (Persian Gulf War; 1980-88), an
 immensely costly, inconclusive World War I-style
 war of attrition that cost more than l million
 lives. The war began in September 1980, with Iraq
 abrogating a 1975 treaty and claiming the whole
 Shatt al-Arab waterway between Iraq and Iran. Iraqi
 forces took some Iranian territory in late 1980,
 capturing Khorramshahr; Iranian forces gained
 supremacy in 1981 and 1982. Iraq sought peace in
 June 1982, but Iran forced continuation of the war
 and invaded Iraq. After mid-1982 the war was
 essentially a stalemate; the "human wave" infantry
 attacks of the Iranian army, often using untrained
 volunteers and levies, achieved some very limited
 successes while causing enormous losses, but they
 failed to substantially breach the Iraqi defense
 lines. Throughout the war there was also a second
 front, as the long Kurdish insurgency in northern
 Iraq continued, now supported by Iran. By 1984 Iraq
 was using chemical weapons and continued to do so;
 in 1985 both sides began missile attacks on enemy
 cities. In an attempt to free the American hostages
 in Lebanon, the United States became deeply
 involved in supplying arms to Iran, beginning in
 1985, a set of actions resulting in the
 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR. Both Iraq and Iran mined and
 attacked neutral tankers in the Persian Gulf; in
 1987 an Iraqi attack on the U.S.S. Stark triggered
 major U.S. naval involvement against Iran, with
 American ships escorting tankers, and several
 engagements between Iranian and American forces in
 the Gulf. In July 1988 the U.S.S. Vincennes
 mistakenly attacked an Iranian passenger plane over
 the Gulf, killing 290 people. On August 20, 1988,
 after peace efforts mediated by 
UNITED NATIONS
 secretary general Javier 
PEREZ DE CUELLAR, a
 cease-fire began, followed by peace negotiations in
 Geneva. The Iraqi army then moved strong forces
 against the Kurdish insurgents and civilian
 population, using both conventional and 
CHEMICAL

 WARFARE to kill tens of thousands, most of them
 civilians, and driving hundreds of thousands of
 Kurds across the Turkish and Iranian borders as
 refugees.

Iraq (Republic of Iraq), until 1918 part of the
 Ottoman Empire. It became a 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 British-administered mandate territory after World
 War I, formally becoming an independent state in
 1932. However, Iraq was in reality a British
 protectorate until after World War II, and heavily
 British-influenced until the 1958 nationalist coup
 led by Abdul Karim 
KASSEM, which declared Iraq a
 republic. After the 1968 military coup, Iraq became
 an Arab Islamic Socialist state led by the 
BA'ATH

 PARTY.

Ireland (Republic of Ireland), until 1921 part of
 the United Kingdom, winning its freedom in December
 1921, after the 
EASTER RISING of 1916 and the
 
IRISH CIVIL WAR of 1919-21, ending with the
 north-south partition of Ireland. The country was
 the Irish Free State, 1922-37, then became a
 republic.

Irgun Zvai Leumi (National Military Organization),
 a militant underground Jewish fighting force of the
 mid-20th century, engaged in armed action against
 the British occupiers of Palestine and against
 Palestinian Arabs, with the aim of creating a
 Jewish state throughout the areas that are now
 Israel, the 
WEST BANK, and Jordan. The Irgun was
 formed in Jerusalem in 1931, and was originally led
 by ex-
HAGANAH army commander Avraham Tehomi. In
 1936 it became part of the Revisionist movement,
 led by Vladimir 
JABOTINSKY. After 1943 it was led
 by Menachim 
BEGIN, later to become the premier of
 Israel (1977-83). During the 1930s and early 1940s
 the Irgun freely used assassination and other acts
 of terrorism as weapons of war, and was condemned
 for doing so by the leaders of the Haganah and the
 World Zionist Organization. It also worked to bring
 Jews illegally into Palestine after immigration was
 limited in 1939, thereby helping to save some
 European Jews from the 
JEWISH HOLOCAUST. After
 the end of World War II, the open battle for the
 creation of the state of Israel allied the Irgun
 Zvai Leumi with the Haganah, which was the main
 Jewish army, and with the 
STERN GANG, a small,
 even more terrrorist-oriented group than the Irgun.
 But the terrorist tactics of the Irgun and the
 Stern Gang greatly embarrassed the main Jewish
 leadership. On July 22, 1946, under the direct
 supervision of Menachim Begin and against strong
 Haganah protest, the Irgun blew up British
 administrative offices in a wing of the 
KING DAVID

 HOTEL in Jerusalem, killing 91 people, 17 of them
 Jews. On October 31, 1946, the Irgun blew up the
 British Embassy in Rome. The Irgun also took
 British hostages, in one instance hanging two
 British army sergeants in reprisal for the
 execution of Irgun activists. And on April 9, 1948,
 during the 
ISRAELI WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (FIRST

 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR), which established Israel, Irgun
 units attacked the small Arab village of 
DEIR

 YASIN, outside Jerusalem, killing all 254 of its
 inhabitants, most of them noncombatants. The Irgun
 was disbanded on September 21, 1948, most of its
 members then joining the Israeli army. Menachim
 Begin and his followers went on into Israeli
 political life, first in the Herut party and later
 in the Likud (Unity) party, which brought Begin to
 power in 1977.

Irish Citizen Army, a small Irish Republican
 military group, numbering a few hundred men,
 organized by socialists James 
CONNOLLY and James
 Larkin after the Dublin General Strike of 1913. It
 participated in the 
EASTER RISING of 1916.

Irish Civil War (1921-22), a brief civil war
 between the provisonal government of the new Irish
 Free State and 
IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY elements
 that refused to accept the peace settlement
 following the 
IRISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. Although
 the Irish government won the war, 
IRISH REPUBLICAN

 ARMY (IRA) elements continue their decades-old
 guerrilla war against the existence of Northern
 Ireland or any British presence in Ireland.

Irish Republican Army (IRA), the military arm of
 the Irish Republic during the 
IRISH WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE (1919-21), growing from the 
IRISH

 VOLUNTEERS, the main Irish force during the
 
EASTER RISING. Large elements of the IRA refused
 to accept the treaty ending the war of independence
 and partitioning Ireland into the Irish Free State
 and Northern Ireland, but they lost the ensuing
 
IRISH CIVIL WAR. However, some elements of the
 IRA to this day continue a policy of armed
 opposition to the existence of Northern Ireland and
 to any British presence in Ireland, conducting a
 now decades-long guerrilla war that has extended to
 other parts of Great Britain, and to British
 installations in many parts of the world.

Irish Volunteers, an Irish republican military
 organization founded in 1913 under the leadership
 of Patrick 
PEARSE. It was the main force in the
 
EASTER RISING of 1916, and from it grew the
 
IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY.

Irish War of Independence (1919-21), war that
 resulted after the executions of the leaders of the
 
EASTER RISING (Dublin, 1916) had made them
 martyrs. The Irish Republican political arm, 
SINN

 FEIN, won the elections of 1918, declaring the
 independence of the Irish Republic on January 21,
 1919, with Eamon 
DE VALERA its first president.
 The British did not accept Irish independence, nor
 did the large Protestant population of Northern
 Ireland and the Protestant military organization,
 the 
ULSTER VOLUNTEERS. The 
IRISH REPUBLICAN

 ARMY then conducted a 3-year guerrilla war for
 independence, which ended with the truce of July
 11, 1921, and the subsequent agreement to a
 partition of Ireland, between the 26 counties of
 the Irish Free State (which in 1937 became the
 Republic of Ireland) and the six counties of
 Northern Ireland. De Valera, who had spent the war
 abroad, raising money and support for the
 revolution, did not accept partition; he and his
 supporters then unsuccessfully engaged the new
 Irish provisional government, led by Michael
 
COLLINS, in the brief 
IRISH CIVIL WAR.

iron curtain, phrase coined by Winston 
CHURCHILL
 to describe the Soviet-Western schism then growing
 into the 
COLD WAR, during a March 5, 1946, speech
 at Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri.

Iron Triangle, a Viet Cong guerrilla base area on
 the northern approaches to Saigon, the scene of
 many unsuccessful U.S.-South Vietnamese
 anti-guerrilla raids and campaigns during the
 
VIETNAM WAR.

Iroquois Theater fire (December 30, 1903), a
 backstage fire during a crowded matinee at
 Chicago's Iroquois Theater, then featuring comedian
 Eddie Foy in Mr. Bluebeard, that caused heavy smoke
 and then panic. Within 15 minutes, 602 had died, in
 spite of Foy's valiant attempt to quiet the crowd
 and organize an orderly evacuation of the building.


Irving, Clifford, U.S. novelist who created a false
 autobiography of wealthy recluse Howard Hughes,
 after having very easily convinced his McGraw-Hill
 editors that his entirely imaginary relationship
 with Hughes was real. Late in 1971 the fraud was
 discovered, drawing a great deal of media
 attention. Irving, his wife Edith, and co-author
 Richard Suskind all pleaded guilty and received
 light sentences.

Ishizaka, Taizo (1886-1975), Japanese business
 leader, chairman of the Federation of Economic
 Organizations 1956-68, and chairman of Toshiba
 Electric Company.

Islamic Holy War (Islamic Jihad), Shiite Moslem
 Lebanese militia, that during the 
LEBANESE WARS
 claimed responsibility for many acts of terrorism,
 including the 1985 
ATHENS-BEIRUT AIRPORT

 HIJACKING.

isolationism, the belief that U.S. interests would
 best be served by an insular approach to world
 affairs, fed by geographic position and an often
 strong strain of antiforeign bias in the United
 States. In the 20th century, isolationism was
 particularly strong during the interwar period,
 first directly after World War I, when the 
LEAGUE

 OF NATIONS was rejected and xenophobic immigration
 restriction adopted, and then during the 1930s,
 when "isolationism" became a movement that opposed
 U.S. support for the European democracies in the
 run-up to World War II, and until 
PEARL HARBOR
 opposed U.S. entry into the war.

Isonzo, Battles of (June, 1915-September, 1917), a
 series of World War I Italian attacks on Austrian
 border fortifications in mountainous terrain along
 the Isonzo River, the equivalent of the Western
 Front's 
TRENCH WARFARE. All of the attacks
 failed, with hundreds of thousands of casualties on
 both sides.

isotopes, variant forms of an element whose atoms
 have the same number of 
PROTONS and 
ELECTRONS
 but a different number of 
NEUTRONS, so that they
 occupy the same place on chemistry's period table
 but behave somewhat differently because of the
 different mass in their 
NUCLEUS. Frederick
 
SODDY recognized such variant forms in 1913,
 calling them isotopes (Greek for "same place"); his
 theory of isotopes was confirmed in 1919 by British
 chemist Francis William Aston, who was able to
 measure the proportion of different isotopes in an
 element. 
RADIOACTIVE isotopes, or radioisotopes,
 are widely used in medicine, as in the treatment of
 
CANCER or as tracers in the body as an aid to
 diagnosis.

Israel (State of Israel), until 1918 part of the
 Ottoman Empire. After World War I the area that
 later became Israel then became part of the
 British-administered 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS Palestine
 mandate territory, and from the early 1920s it was
 beset by increasingly serious Arab-Jewish
 conflicts. The British withdrew on May 14, 1948; on
 that day Israeli independence was declared, and
 then established during the subsequent 
ISRAELI WAR

 OF INDEPENDENCE (FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR) and the
 partition of Palestine, which was followed by over
 four decades of Arab-Israeli conflict.

Israeli War of Independence (First Arab-Israeli
 War; May 1948-January 1949), conflict starting in
 January 1948 as the British army prepared to leave
 Palestine, pursuant to the 
UNITED NATIONS
 Palestine partition decision of 1947, with civil
 war breaking out in Palestine. After hard fighting,
 by early May massive Palestinian Arab evacuations
 of Haifa, Jaffa, and other cities were well under
 way, as well as evacuations of rural populations
 throughout the country, spurred partly by fears
 raised after the April 9 massacre at 
DEIR YASIN
 by the 
IRGUN ZVAI LEUMI and 
STERN GANG. On May
 14, the British left Palestine, and the Israeli
 state was proclaimed; on that day and the next,
 Syrian, Lebanese, Iraqi, Jordanian, and Egyptian
 forces invaded Israel, joining Palestinian Arab
 forces already at war. A chaotic war on several
 fronts followed, punctuated by two truces, June
 11-July 9 and July 18-October 15. The Israeli
 forces steadily grew in strength as the war
 progressed, ultimately heavily outnumbering the
 combined Arab expeditionary forces and being far
 better led throughout the war. The sole exception
 was that of the Transjordanian 
ARAB LEGION, which
 effectively fought the Israelis in and around
 Jerusalem, taking and holding much of the city. UN
 mediation efforts effectively ended with the Stern
 Gang assassination of UN mediator Folke
 
BERNADOTTE on September 17. The war ended on
 January 7, 1949, with an Israeli-Egyptian
 cease-fire agreement. No peace treaties resulted,
 500,000-l,000,000 Palestinian Arab refugees had
 fled, and guerrilla warfare continued while
 terrorism grew. The stage had been set for at least
 four more decades of Arab-Israeli conflicts, which
 were to include three more wars, interventions,
 armed strikes and counterstrikes, and continuing
 insurgencies.

Italian Somaliland, the name of a former Italian
 African colony that became part of independent
 
SOMALIA in 1960.

Italo-Turkish War (1911-12), conflict that began
 with the Italian declaration of war, on September
 29, 1911. Italian forces then invaded and occupied
 Libya, Rhodes, and the Dodecanese Islands, all
 against weak Turkish resistance; Italy was ceded
 these territories by the Treaty of Ouchy, on
 October 15, 1912.

Italy, invasion of (September-October 1943), World
 War II attack on Italy, after the fall of Sicily to
 the Allies, in August 1943. The invasion of Italy
 began on September 3, as British troops crossed
 from Sicily to Calabria against light opposition
 and began to move north. On September 9, British
 troops also landed at Taranto, and major American
 and British landings were made at Salerno. The
 Salerno landings were strongly resisted, and for a
 time it seemed that the Allied troops would be
 pushed off their small beachheads. The beachheads
 were reinforced and held until relieved by British
 troops moving up from the south. The combined
 Allied forces then moved north; by mid-November
 they had taken all of southern Italy, and faced
 German 
GUSTAV LINE defences running across the
 country from sea to sea.

IUD (intrauterine device), coil or loop, often of
 metal or plastic, implanted in a woman's uterus; an
 old form of contraceptive device, always with some
 attendant hazards, especially disastrous with the
 
DALKON SHIELD.

Ivan the Terrible, 
JOHN DEMJANJUK, TREBLINKA DEATH

 CAMP guard, sentenced to death in Israel on April
 25, 1988.

Ivory Coast, English version of the name for 
COTE

 D'IVORE, a former French colony independent from
 1960.

Iwasaki, Koyota (1879-1945), Japanese Mitsubishi
 family business leader who led the Mitsubishi
 Company from 1916 to 1945, and was a leading
 armaments maker through the end of World War II,
 then being forced to formally leave the business
 world by the Occupation authorities.

Iwo Jima, Battle of (February 19-March 16, 1945),
 an extremely costly engagement on the small Pacific
 island late in World War II. The U.S. Marine
 assault on heavily fortified Japanese positions,
 most of them underground, began with amphibious
 landings under heavy fire on February 19. Mount
 Suribachi was taken 5 days later, and Iwo Jima was
 secured in mid-March. Almost all of the estimated
 22,000-25,000 Japanese defenders fought to the
 death; there were almost 25,000 American
 casualties, and almost 7,000 of those died.

IWW, the initials of the 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE

 WORLD, by which this U.S. syndicalist labor
 organization was best known.

Jabotinsky, Vladimir (1880-1940), Russian-Jewish
 journalist who became an active Zionist after the
 
KISHINEV POGROMS of 1903, and fought in the
 Jewish Legion on the side of the British in
 Palestine during World War I. In 1925 Jabotinsky
 founded the Zionist Revisionist movement, which
 called for armed struggle, and the development of a
 terrorist campaign against the British occupiers of
 Palestine, in opposition to the main strategy of
 the world Zionist movement, which urged restraint.
 His views were adopted by the terrorist 
IRGUN ZVAI

 LEUMI and by its militant leaders, including
 Menachim 
BEGIN, who led the organization from
 1943 and was later premier of Israel 1977-83.

Jackson, Jesse Louis (1941- ), U.S. Black leader,
 active in the 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT of the 1960s,
 in the 
CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY (CORE), and as
 an associate of Martin Luther 
KING, JR., in the
 
SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE. In 1967
 he was a founder of Operation Breadbasket, and in
 1971 he founded PUSH (People United to Save
 Humanity). In 1983-84 he sought the Democratic
 presidential nomination, mounted a substantial
 registration campaign, and emerged as the first
 major Black contender for the presidency, although
 failing to move far beyond a Black constituency. In
 1987-88 he ran again, this time building a
 substantial Democratic liberal coalition around his
 candidacy while mounting another strong
 registration drive; he ran second to Michael
 
DUKAKIS in the Democratic primaries. He then
 emerged as one of the most important Black leaders
 since Martin Luther King, Jr., and simultaneously
 as a major liberal Democratic party leader, whose
 address to his party's convention was by far the
 most notable speech at that convention.

Jackson, Robert Houghwout (1892-1954), U.S. lawyer,
 who served in a succession of federal government
 legal positions, beginning in 1934, and was U.S.
 attorney-general 1940-41. In 1941 he was appointed
 to the Supreme Court by Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT and
 was a moderate on the Court. He was chief U.S.
 prosecutor at the 
NUREMBERG TRIALS 1945-46.

Jacobsen, David, one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, a director of the American University,
 who was kidnapped on May 28, 1985, and released on
 November 2, 1986.

Jadar, Battle of (August 12-21, 1914), World War I
 battle in which invading Austrian forces 200,000
 strong retreated back across the Drina River after
 defeat in this first major Austro-Serbian battle of
 World War I.

Jallianwallah Bagh, site of the April 13, 1919,
 
AMRITSAR MASSACRE of unarmed Indian demonstrators
 by the British.

Jamaica, until 1962, a British colony, becoming an
 independent state and 
COMMONWEALTH member on
 August 6, 1962; its first prime minister was
 Alexander 
BUSTAMENTE.

James, William (1842-1910), U.S. physician,
 psychologist, and philosopher, elder brother of
 novelist Henry James. Much of his teaching at
 Harvard, and his classic 12-volume Principles of
 Psychology, in which he introduced the "stream of
 consciousness," belong to the 19th century, but two
 key works marked the early 20th century. The
 Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) took the
 novel approach of treating people's religious
 feelings as real, as shown by their effect on the
 individual's behavior. His Pragmatism (1907)
 inveighed against absolutes, arguing that truth and
 goodness are to be found not in theory, but in
 results that seem good, and not harmful.

Jansky, Karl Guthe (1905-50), U.S. radio engineer
 at Bell Labs who, while searching for ways to
 decrease static on transoceanic telephone calls in
 1931, discovered 
RADIO waves produced by objects
 outside the solar system, laying the basis for
 modern 
RADIO ASTRONOMY.

Japan,, until its loss of World War II in 1945, an
 imperial power, ruled by a line of divine, though
 in practice not absolute, monarchs, the last of
 them being 
HIROHITO. After Japan's unconditional
 surrender the country lost its imperial gains and
 was occupied, 1945-52, during that period becoming
 a constitutional monarchy and experiencing major
 structural changes, then emerging as a major
 economic power.

Japanese-American World War II internment, World
 War II removal of 110,000 U.S. Pacific coast
 Japanese-Americans from their homes to ten
 
CONCENTRATION CAMPS, established by President
 Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT'S Executive Order 9066 of
 February 19, 1942. Many were forced to sell their
 farms, businesses, homes, and personal possessions
 at ruinous distress prices. In 1976 President
 Gerald 
FORD publicly apologized on behalf of the
 United States to those so held. In 1988 those
 internees still alive were voted tax-free payments
 of $20,000 each, with a further apology from
 President Ronald 
REAGAN.

Japanese-Soviet Border War (May-September 1939), an
 undeclared war over disputed territory on the
 Manchuria-Outer Mongolia border, involving
 division-strength Japanese and Soviet forces.
 Soviet forces ultimately occupied the disputed
 territory.

Jaruzelski, Wojciech (1923- ), Polish soldier, who
 fought beside Soviet forces on the Eastern Front
 during World War II; he became an officer during
 the postwar period, army chief of staff 1965-68,
 and defense minister 1968-83. In 1981, during the
 crisis generated by the government's confrontation
 with 
SOLIDARITY, he took power with Soviet
 sponsorship, in October 1981 becoming first
 secretary of the Polish Communist Party. In
 December 1981 he declared martial law and arrested
 many dissident leaders, including Lech 
WALESA. He
 formally became prime minister in 1983, resigning
 in 1985 to become chairman of the Council of State,
 retaining his Communist party and real state
 leadership throughout the period. In late 1987,
 with the loosening of Soviet control that came in
 the Gorbachev era, Jaruzelski began a broad
 liberalization program, including the initiation of
 the talks that ultimately resulted in the 1989
 legalization of 
SOLIDARITY.

Jaspers, Karl (1883-1969), German clinical
 psychiatrist and philosopher, whose views on
 individual freedom much influenced the development
 of 20th-century 
EXISTENTIALISM. Jaspers rejected
 schools of thought and abstract theory, preferring
 to focus on the individual's attempt to understand
 concrete reality. An anti-Nazi, after the war
 Jaspers focused on wide moral questions, including
 the collective guilt of the German people for World
 War II and the need for the country's
 de-Nazification and regeneration.

Jaures, Jean (1859-1914), French socialist leader
 who was also a leader of the 
SECOND INTERNATIONAL
 and who opposed socialist participation in the
 coming European war, pressing for French-German
 reconciliation in the period before World War I. He
 was assassinated by a French nationalist on July
 31, 1914. Some have thought that he might have been
 able to prevent French socialist support of the
 French government during World War I, encouraging
 opposition to the war by other socialist parties.


Java Sea, Battle of the (February 27, 1942), World
 War II engagement in which Japanese air and naval
 forces sank most of a small combined Dutch-American
 battle fleet; two Allied cruisers and five
 destroyers survived. The Japanese invasion and
 conquest of the East Indies then moved ahead
 uncontested.

Jeans, James Hopwood (1877-1946), British
 mathematician and astronomer, who first put forward
 the 
STEADY STATE THEORY of the universe in 1928.


Jenco, Reverend Martin, one of the American
 
LEBANON HOSTAGES, head of Catholic Relief
 Services in Lebanon, who was kidnapped on January
 8, 1985, and released on July 26, 1985.

Jensen, Arthur R. (1923- ), U.S. educational
 psychologist, who aroused great controversy when-in
 1969, in the midst of a 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT-he
 claimed that Blacks achieve lower 
INTELLIGENCE

 QUOTIENT scores than Whites because they are
 genetically inferior, an extreme form of the old
 argument that heredity, rather than environment, is
 the key to human differences.

Jericho, ancient city in modern Jordan, excavated
 1952-58 by Kathleen 
KENYON and found to be
 perhaps 9,000 or more years old.

jet, 
AIRPLANE driven by 
JET PROPULSION, forward
 motion from rearward discharge of fluids and gases
 produced by burning fuels, using air from the
 atmosphere. British engineer Frank Whittle obtained
 the first patent for a turbojet engine in 1930, but
 it was not tested until 1937, and the first British
 flight was not until 1941. Working independently
 from a 1935 design, German engineers had the first
 turbojet-powered flight in 1939, the craft being a
 Heinkel HE 178. In World War II a German
 
MESSERSCHMIDT jet first saw action in 1944; the
 British Glostor Meteor was first used in 1945. An
 American jet, the Bell X-1, piloted by Charles
 
YEAGER, broke the 
SOUND BARRIER in 1947. Jets
 were put into commercial service in 1952, starting
 with a BOAC De Havilland DH 106 Comet. The Boeing
 707 was introduced in 1954, making nonstop
 trans-Atlantic flights by 1958; this workhorse
 passenger jet was in use for decades, alongside
 smaller jets, which, from the 1960s, were widely
 used for short hauls. Larger craft, like the
 "jumbo" 747, operated from the late 1960s and
 faster jets, notably 
SUPERSONIC TRANSPORT,
 operated from 1976.

jet propulsion, forward motion in response to
 rearward discharge of fluid or gases, especially
 from burning fuels, the main kind of propulsion
 used in 
ROCKETS, MISSILES, and 
JETS, first
 envisioned in 1909 by French engineer Rene Lorin.


jet stream, strong air currents 7 to 8 miles above
 the Earth, first discovered by high-flying bomber
 pilots during World War II; an aid or a drag to
 modern 
JETS, depending on their direction.

Jewish Holocaust, the murder of an estimated 6
 million Jews during the years 1933-45, and
 especially after 1940, by a German Nazi government
 bent on committing 
GENOCIDE. Some of the mass
 murders occurred in and after battle, as in the
 Battle of the 
WARSAW GHETTO, and in the
 executions by the Germans of captured Jewish
 partisans and frontline fighters on the Polish and
 Russian fronts during World War II. The great
 majority of the mass murders, however, occurred in
 
CONCENTRATION CAMPS, such as those set up by the
 Germans at 
BELSEN, BUCHENWALD, and 
DACHAU in
 Germany and at 
AUSCHWITZ, MAIDENEK, and
 
TREBLINKA in Poland. Estimates vary greatly as to
 how many people of all nationalities were murdered,
 but it is clear that at least 6 million Jews were
 among the 10 million-according to some estimates,
 as many as 26 million people-who died in these
 camps, many millions of them in crematoria run by
 the Germans. The camps were set up and run by the
 German government, by order of Adolf 
HITLER, and
 under the direct supervision of the head of the SS
 (Schutzstaffel), Heinrich 
HIMMLER.

Jiang Qing (Chiang Ch'ing; Luan Shu-meng; on stage,
 Lan P'ing; 1914- ), Chinese actress who became the
 third wife of 
MAO ZEDONG during the 
YENAN
 period of 1930s. She became an increasingly
 powerful figure in Chinese cultural affairs before
 and during the 
CULTURAL REVOLUTION, but after
 Mao's death she lost much of her power and was
 ultimately convicted in 1981 of being the leader of
 the 
GANG OF FOUR.

jihad, an Islamic holy war; such holy wars have
 been declared very often in the late 20th century,
 on many occasions by very small splinter groups
 with little or no ability to move masses of Moslems
 to concerted military action.

Jinnah, Mohammad Ali (1876-1948), Indian Moslem
 lawyer, who became the founder of Pakistan. Early
 in his career he espoused Moslem-Hindu and 
MOSLEM

 LEAGUE-CONGRESS PARTY cooperation  in the Indian
 independence movement, but he began to move away
 from the Congress Party in the 1920s, as it became
 a mass movement, leaving political life in the
 early 1930s. In the mid-1930s he began to
 successfully organize the 
MOSLEM LEAGUE into a
 mass movement, in 1940 he called for a separate
 Islamic state of Pakistan, and after World War II,
 with bitter Moslem-Hindu communal violence growing,
 he won agreement from reluctant Congress party
 leaders for a two-country solution. He was the
 first governor-general of Pakistan.

Jodl, Alfred (1890-1946), German officer who saw
 service in World War I and during World War II was
 a key military planner. He signed the German
 surrender at Reims on May 7, 1945, was convicted of
 war crimes at the 
NUREMBERG TRIALS, and was
 executed in 1946.

Joffre, Joseph (1852-1931), French World War I
 general who commanded the French armies during the
 first Battle of the 
MARNE, and who was French
 commander-in-chief from December 1915 through
 December 1916.

Johanson, Donald Carl (1943- ), U.S. physical
 anthropologist working in eastern Africa, who
 discovered an almost complete primitive skeleton,
 which he made famous in his book Lucy: The
 Beginnings of Human Kind (1982). His
 interpretations of his finds, such as those of the
 apparent family of skeletons he believed
 represented a new human-like species, often brought
 him into disagreement and controversy with Richard
 
LEAKEY.

John XXIII, Pope (Angelo Giuseppe Roncali;
 1881-1963), Italian priest, ordained in 1904, and
 pope 1958-63. In the 54 years before becoming Pope
 he performed a wide variety of functions, including
 those of World War I chaplain, Vatican diplomatic
 representative during the interwar period, and
 papal nuncio to France after World War II. He
 became a cardinal and patriarch of Venice in 1953.
 During his tenure as pope he made an enormous
 impact on the Roman Catholic Church, ushering in a
 new period of ecumenical participation, social
 concern, and activism in the cause of world peace.
 He issued a series of notable encyclicals,
 including Pacem in Terris, and initiated 
VATICAN

 II, widely described as the most important
 Catholic Church meeting in hundreds of years.

John Birch Society, an ultraconservative U.S.
 political organization, founded by Robert Welch in
 1958, that advocated a series of extremist
 positions on the issues of its time and charged
 several American presidents, among others, with
 being Communist agents. It attracted a considerable
 following in the early 1960s, estimated to be in
 the 100,000-member range, and temporarily managed
 to ban some books and win a few local elections;
 but its extremism ultimately made it an
 embarrassment to those it supported.

John Paul I, Pope (Albino Luciani; 1912-78),
 Italian priest, ordained in 1934 and pope from
 August 26, 1978 to September 18, 1978, then dying
 suddenly of a heart attack. He had been a priest,
 teacher, bishop, and cardinal before his brief
 tenure as pope.

John Paul II, Pope (Karol Wojtyla, 1920-), Roman
 Catholic pope who became a priest in 1946,
 archbishop of Krakow in 1964, and pope in 1978, the
 first-ever Polish pope and the first non-Italian
 pope in four centuries. A generally conservative
 leader, he insisted on adherence to his church's
 traditional positions on such issues as abortion
 and the politicalization of the clergy. He has
 stressed the development of his church's influence
 in the 
THIRD WORLD.

Johnson, Lyndon Baines (1908-73), U.S. teacher, and
 a Texas Democratic congressman (1937-49) and
 senator (1949-61), who became John F. 
KENNEDY'S
 vice president in 1961 and succeeded to the
 presidency after Kennedy's assassination in Dallas,
 on November 22, 1963. He defeated Republican Barry
 
GOLDWATER in 1964 and did not run for a second
 full term in 1968. As president he initiated a
 great deal of social legislation, much of it around
 the unifying slogan, the 
GREAT SOCIETY, and
 including the establishment of 
MEDICARE, the
 
CIVIL RIGHT ACTS of 1964 and 1965, national aid
 to education, a substantial series of new and
 expanded antipoverty programs, and the
 establishment of two new federal departments:
 Housing and Urban Development and Transportation.
 Abroad, he greatly expanded the role of the United
 States in the 
VIETNAM WAR, including the bombing
 of North Vietnam and clandestine operations in Laos
 and Cambodia. At the same time, he refused to
 sanction a full-scale invasion of North Vietnam. On
 March 31, 1968, he announced that he would not seek
 reelection, at the same time revealing new peace
 initiatives, which did not succeed. His
 vice-president, Hubert H. 
HUMPHREY, became
 Democratic candidate for the presidency in 1968,
 after a bitter Democratic national convention in
 Chicago, and was defeated by Richard M. 
NIXON.

Johnson, Philip Cortelyou (1906- ), U.S. architect,
 a leading exponent of the International Style and
 then of the post-Modernist style. His home, the
 Glass Box (1949) in New Canaan, Connecticut, and
 his Seagram Building (1958) in New York, built in
 collaboration with 
MIES VAN DER ROHE, were
 seminal influences in the development of modern
 architecture, as were such later buildings as the
 New York State Theater (1964) and the American
 Telephone and Telegraph Building (1978), both in
 New York City.

Johnson, Virginia Eshelman (1925- ), U.S.
 psychologist and sex researcher working with
 William 
MASTERS.

Johnson Space Center, site of the 
NATIONAL

 AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA)'s
 mission control for space flights, founded 1961;
 originally called the NASA Spacecraft Center, but
 renamed in 1973.

Joliot-Curie, Irene (1897-1956) and JEAN FREDERIC
 JOLIOT-CURIE (1900-58), French physicists who
 met as young assistants to Irene's mother, Marie
 
CURIE. In 1934 the Joliot-Curies were the first
 to induce artifical 
RADIOACTIVITY, bombarding one
 element and causing its transformation into
 another, with the release of particles; their work
 won them the 1935 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. In
 1939, Frederic was the first to recognize the
 possibility of a 
CHAIN REACTION in the 
NUCLEAR
 
FISSION of 
URANIUM, but the Joliot-Curies' work
 was short-circuited by World War II, during which
 they hid their store of uranium and smuggled out of
 the country their store of precious 
HEAVY WATER.
 They remained behind to work in the French
 
RESISTANCE. Afterward, Frederic helped build the
 first French 
NUCLEAR REACTOR, completed in 1948.
 Partly in reaction to the Nazis during World War
 II, the Joliot-Curies became Communists and during
 the 
COLD WAR were removed from sensitive political
 positions. Irene died of leukemia, as had her
 mother, probably because of their work with
 
RADIATION.

Jonathan, Leabua (1914- ), Basuto chief, head of
 the Basutoland National Party, who became the first
 prime minister of Lesotho in 1966, when the British
 protectorate of Basutoland became independent
 Lesotho. He became ruler of Lesotho in 1970,
 suspending the constitution and imprisoning
 opposition party leaders after his party had
 suffered electoral losses; he ruled his country
 absolutely until being overthrown by an army coup
 in 1986. Although his Black African country was
 entirely surrounded by South Africa, he sharply and
 publicly opposed 
APARTHEID, giving sanctuary to
 thousands of South African refugees, among them
 some 
AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC) members and
 activists. In 1982 South African troops attacked
 alleged ANC groups in Lesotho; in 1986 South Africa
 began an economic blockade of Lesotho, which was
 lifted after Jonathan was deposed and South African
 refugees accused of being ANC activists were
 deported to Zimbabwe.

Jones, James Warren "Jim", 
PEOPLE'S TEMPLE cult
 leader, who was responsible for the deaths of over
 900 people in the 
JONESTOWN mass suicides and
 murders of 1978.

Jones, Mary Harris "Mother Jones" (1830-1930), U.S.
 teacher, who became active in the Knights of Labor
 in the early 1870s and spent the rest of her life
 as a trade union organizer and speaker. She was 70
 years old as the 20th century began, and continued
 to be active in most of the major American strikes
 of the first two decades of the century, up to and
 including the great 
STEEL STRIKE of 1919.

Jonestown, a Guyana settlement to which James
 Warren "Jim" 
JONES and approximately 1,000 of his
 followers in the 
PEOPLE'S TEMPLE cult fled, when
 the cult's practices were in 1976 exposed in San
 Francisco. In November 1978, U.S. Congressman Leo
 Ryan and a party of investigators and newspeople
 went to Jonestown, in response to charges that some
 there were being held against their will. As they
 were boarding an airplane home, Ryan, three
 newspeople, and a defecting cultist were murdered
 by Jones' followers; ten others were wounded. Jones
 then induced most of his followers to commit
 suicide, giving them cyanide-laced drinks. Those
 who refused to do so were murdered. Jones committed
 suicide; 913 cult members died, only a few escaped.

Jordan (Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan), until 1920,
 part of the Ottoman Empire. After World War I, it
 became part of the British-administered 
LEAGUE OF
 
NATIONS mandate territory of Transjordan. Full
 independence came on May 25, 1946, although some
 British influence remained until the mid-1950s.
 Jordan lost the 
WEST BANK (of the Jordan River)
 territories during the 1967 war with Israel,
 formally giving up its claims and obligations
 regarding those territories in 1988 as the
 
INTIFADA developed.

Jordan, Barbara (1936- ), U.S. lawyer, law
 professor, and civil rights leader, who became the
 first Black Texas state legislator (1966-72) since
 Reconstruction, a Democratic Texas congresswoman
 (1973-79), and the keynote speaker at the 1976
 Democratic 
NATIONAL CONVENTION.

Jordan, Vernon Eulion, Jr. (1935- ), U.S. lawyer,
 active in the 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT from the
 early 1960s, as Georgia field secretary for the
 
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF
 
COLORED PEOPLE
 (NAACP) 1961-63, Southern Regional
 Council voter education project director 1964-68,
 head of the United Negro College Fund 1980-81, and
 head of the Urban League 1972-81. On May 29, 1980,
 Jordan was shot and seriously wounded in an
 unsolved assassination attempt.

Jorgenson, Christine (born George Jorgensen,
 1926-89), pioneer U.S. transsexual who, after a
 series of 
HORMONE injections and operations
 (1950-52), given by a medical team in Copenhagen,
 Denmark, headed by Dr. Christian Hamburger,
 accomplished an early, highly publicized successful
 
SEX CHANGE, to the great dismay of many in her
 homeland. She later became a popular entertainer.

Joyce, William, the name of Nazi broadcaster Lord
 
HAW HAW.

Juan Carlos (Juan Carlos Alfonso Victor Maria;
 1938- ), king of Spain, who was named by Francisco
 
FRANCO as successor to the throne in 1969,
 becoming king after Franco's death in 1975. His
 grandfather, Alfonso XIII, had been deposed in
 1931; Spain had no king from 1931-75. A
 constitutional monarch, Juan Carlos strongly
 supported the return of Spanish democracy and
 played a key role in putting down the attempted
 right-wing military coup of 1981.

July Days, a series of major Russian demonstrations
 led by the 
BOLSHEVIKS, in July 1917, aimed at
 overthrowing the 
PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT. After
 the demonstrations failed, some of the Bolshevik
 leaders went into hiding and others were arrested.

Jumblat, Kamal (1917-77), leader of the Druse
 Moslems in Lebanon and of the Druse militia, who
 organized and led the Progressive Socialist party
 from 1949. He joined Camille 
CHAMOUN in toppling
 the Bishra government, which they had both
 supported, in the coup of 1952, and then broke with
 Chamoun in 1958, becoming one of the organizers of
 the revolutionary coalition in the 
LEBANESE CIVIL
 
WAR of 1958, thereafter holding cabinet-level
 posts in several governments. He supported
 
PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO)
 operations in Lebanon and was a leader of the left
 during the 
LEBANESE WARS, until his assassination
 in March 1977. He was the father of Walid
 
JUMBLAT.

Jumblat, Walid (1949- ), son of Kamal 
JUMBLAT,
 who succeeded to the leadership of the Lebanese
 Druse community after the 1977 assassination of his
 father; he essentially continued his father's
 policy of coalition with antigovernment forces and
 alliance with Syria.

June Bug, 
AIRPLANE designed and flown by Glenn
 Hammond 
CURTISS in 1908, and winning a Scientific
 American prize for making the first public flight
 of more than a kilometer.

Jung, Carl Gustav (1875-1961), Swiss psychiatrist
 and key 20th-century psychoanalyst. Pioneering in
 word-association tests, Jung was an early disciple
 of 
PSYCHOANALYSIS from 1907 to 1912, before
 breaking with 
FREUD over the primacy of sexual
 instincts and youthful experiences. In his own
 school of analytic psychology, Jung strove to
 encompass the whole development of adult life, with
 potential crises, notably at midlife. He reached
 out to mythology and religion, Eastern and Western,
 finding patients' dreams often paralleling
 archetypal cultural images, regarding these as
 perhaps drawn from a "collective unconscious," or
 pool of myth and symbol common to all cultures.

Jungle, The (1906), the pioneer U.S. muckraking
 novel by Upton 
SINCLAIR, which, by focusing
 public attention on appalling conditions in
 Chicago's meatpacking industry, greatly helped
 passage of the 
PURE FOOD AND DRUG LAWS, including
 the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), the Meat
 Inspection Act (1906), and the Pure Food, Drug, and
 Cosmetic Act (1908).

Jupiter, planetary target of space probes, such as
 the U.S. Pioneer 10 spacecraft, which flew within
 81,000 miles of the planet in 1973, exploring its
 magnetic field and its moons, and Voyagers 1 and 2,
 which flew by in 1979, revealing a turbulent
 atmosphere and possible volcanic activity on
 Jupiter's moon Io.

Jutland, Battle of (May 31-June 1, 1916), the only
 major sea battle of World War I, between the
 British Grand Fleet and the German High Seas Fleet.
 The British fleet, led by 28 modern dreadnoughts,
 and the German fleet, led by 16 dreadnoughts,
 fought to a draw, neither side losing any of its
 dreadnoughts. The German fleet ultimately fled
 home, not to emerge again for the rest of the war.

Kadar, Janos (1912-89), Hungarian Communist
 organizer during the 1930s, who became interior
 minister 1948-50, was imprisoned by his government
 1950-54 and then rehabilitated, and joined in the
 
HUNGARIAN REVOLUTION of 1956, becoming first
 secretary of the Hungarian Communist party on
 October 25, 1956. Less than a week later he broke
 with Imre 
NAGY, leaving Budapest to set up a
 Soviet-oriented government. He became prime
 minister after the revolution had been crushed, was
 prime minister until 1958 and again 1961-65, and
 remained general secretary of his party until 1988,
 when the new wave of liberalization characterizing
 the 
GORBACHEV era forced him into retirement.

Kahn, Herman, U.S. physicist and nuclear strategist
 who, in his highly controversial books, notably On
 Thermonuclear War (1960) and Thinking About the
 Unthinkable (1962), accepted nuclear war as
 probable, feeling it would not end civilization;
 his critics thought that he thereby made nuclear
 war more likely.

Kaiser, the, 
WILHELM II, German emperor 1888-1918
 and World War I leader of the Central European
 alliance, who was deposed by the 
GERMAN

 REVOLUTION of 1918.

Kaiser, Henry John (1882-1967), U.S. industrialist,
 whose contracting firm built some major
 20th-century structures, such as the Boulder (now
 Hoover) Dam (1936) and the Grand Coulee Dam (1942).
 During World War II Kaiser had a chain of
 shipyards, building many of the famous Liberty
 ships; he turned also to car-building after the
 war. In 1942, he also pioneered with a nonprofit
 organization to provide health care for his
 workers, widely known as the Kaiser-Permanente
 Plan, model for later health maintenance
 organizations (HMOs).

Kaltenbrunner, Ernst (1903-46), Austrian Nazi who
 became an SS general, head of the 
GESTAPO and,
 military intelligence, and who was personally
 responsible for wide-scale mass murders, including
 those of millions of Jews and of large numbers of
 prisoners of war. He was captured soon after the
 war, convicted of war crimes at the 
NUREMBERG

 TRIALS, and executed.

Kamenev, Lev Borisovich (1883-1936), a leading
 
BOLSHEVIK and close associate of Grigori
 
ZINOVIEV, who in the early 1920s joined with
 Joseph 
STALIN to defeat Leon 
TROTSKY (whose
 sister was married to Kamenev), but in the mid-20s
 opposed Stalin's takeover of the Soviet Union. For
 this he was expelled from the Communist party and
 lost his official positions; but later he was
 rehabilitated, after recanting. He was executed in
 1936, a victim of the first major show trials of
 the 
GREAT PURGE. In June 1989, during the
 
GORBACHEV era, he was once again rehabilitated,
 this time posthumously.

Kamikazes, Japanese suicide pilots who crashed
 their planes directly into military targets,
 destroying their aircraft and themselves in the
 process. Large numbers of kamikazes died during the
 retaking of the Philippines in 1944, and an
 estimated 2,000-4,000 kamikazes died thereafter,
 many of them during the Battle of 
OKINAWA.

Kammerer, Paul (1880-1926), Austrian biologist, who
 figured in a notorious case in which he claimed
 from 1918 to have experimentally proven the
 inheritance of acquired characteristics. However,
 other scientists-held off for years-found in 1926
 that his experimental specimens of the midwife toad
 had been colored with India ink. Kammerer committed
 suicide a short time later.

Kampuchea (Cambodia), until 1953, a French
 protectorate that had been occupied by Japanese
 forces during World War II and was granted some
 degree of autonomy by the French after World War
 II. Independence came on November 9, 1953, and was
 made firm by French withdrawal with the end of the
 
INDOCHINA WAR in 1954. After the 
KHMER ROUGE
 victory in the 
CAMBODIAN (
KAMPUCHEAN) 
CIVIL

 WAR, Cambodia was renamed Democratic Kampuchea on
 January 5, 1976. With the Vietnamese invasion of
 1978 came the formation of the competing People's
 Republic of Kampuchea, and a long guerrilla war
 that in 1989-1990 threatened to become another
 full-scale civil war.

Kampuchea-Vietnam War (December 1978- ), invasion
 and occupation of Kampuchea by Vietnamese forces
 after a series of border clashes. The Vietnamese
 took the capital of Phnom Penh and ultimately drove
 
POL POT'S forces to the Kampuchea-Thailand
 border. A long occupation and accompanying
 guerrilla war followed; in 1988 Vietnam pulled some
 of its forces out of Kampuchea, stating intentions
 to pull out the balance within 2 years, and claimed
 completion of a troop pullout on September 26,
 1989, although Chinese and opposing guerilla
 sources claimed otherwise.

Kansu earthquake (December 16, 1920), an earthquake
 in south central China that caused an estimated
 150,000-200,000 deaths.

Kao Kang (1902-55), Chinese Communist political
 leader who lost a top-level Communist party
 internal struggle in the mid-1950s and committed
 suicide shortly before he was about to be denounced
 by his party.

Kapitza, Peter Leonidovich (1894-1984), Soviet
 physicist, who worked in Britain from 1921 on
 magnetic fields and low-temperature physics with
 Ernest 
RUTHERFORD until 1934, when he was not
 allowed to leave the U.S.S.R. after a visit. He
 continued his work in the Soviet Union, but was
 persona non grata 1946-55 for refusing to work on
 development of nuclear weapons; he later joined in
 the space effort but continued to support freedom
 of communication, defending dissenters like Andrei
 
SAKHAROV. Kapitza shared the 1978 Nobel Prize for
 Physics for his work on helium at temperatures
 approaching absolute zero.

Kapp Putsch (1920) the German 
FREIKORPS coup led
 by Wolfgang Kapp, which for a short time took
 control of the German government but was defeated
 by a general strike and withdrawal of some army
 support.

Karamanlis, Constantine (1907- ), Greek lawyer, in
 parliament 1935-67, who was premier 1955-63, and
 again in 1974-80; in the latter period he helped to
 restore and stablilize Greek democracy after 7
 years of military government. He was president
 1980-85.

Karmal, Babrak (1929- ), Afghan political leader, a
 member of parliament 1965-73, who headed the more
 moderate, Soviet-influenced wing of the People's
 Democratic Party and became a vice-president of
 Afghanistan after the coup of 1978. He was exiled
 to Czechoslovakia by the more radical wing of the
 party, which controlled the country after the coup.
 After Soviet intervention in 1979 and the execution
 of former vice-president Hafizullah Amin, who had
 seized power from President Nur Mohammed Taraki,
 Babrak was installed by the Soviets as Afghan
 president. He resigned from all posts in 1986, as
 the 
AFGHAN-SOVIET WAR continued.

Karman, Theodore von (1881-1963),
 Hungarian-American aeronautical engineer and
 physicist, who played a major role in the
 development of aerodynamic theory and practice in
 the development of 
SUPERSONIC flight and
 
ROCKETS, heading a practical research and
 development program at the California Institute of
 Technology from 1930.

Kasavubu, Joseph (1910-69), Congolese nationalist,
 an experienced administrator who became coalition
 president of the first Congo (Zaire) government,
 with Patrice 
LUMUMBA as premier, after
 independence from Belgium had been secured,
 effective June 30, 1960. He remained president of
 the Congo until 1965, steering a shifting political
 course. He dismissed Lumumba in 1960, and
 authorized the 
UNITED NATIONS peacekeeping force
 intervention that put down Mojse 
TSHOMBE'S

 Belgian-supported 1960-63 Katanga secession. He
 recalled Tshombe as his prime minister in 1964,
 after departure of the UN force, and then used
 Belgian troops to suppress several insurgencies,
 dismissing Tshombe for electoral fraud in 1965. On
 November 25, 1965, army commander-in-chief General
 Joseph 
MOBUTU, who had held a great deal of power
 since his brief open assumption of power in
 September 1960, openly took power again; Kasavubu
 then left public life.

Kashmir War (1947-49), an undeclared war between
 India and Pakistan that began in October 1947, with
 Moslem insurgency developing after the Hindu ruler
 of Kashmir decided to join Kashmir to India,
 following the August partition of British-ruled
 India and the emergence of independent India and
 Pakistan. After the rebellion Moslem irregulars and
 then Pakistani army forces moved into Kashmir,
 fighting Indian forces sent to put down the revolt
 and take the province for India. On January 1,
 1949, the 
UNITED NATIONS mediated a truce and an
 informal partition of Kashmir along the existing
 battlefront.

Kassem, Abdul Karim (1914-63), Iraqi general who
 led the republican revolution of 1958 and became
 first premier of the Iraqi republic. He was killed
 during an army coup in 1963.

Kasserine Pass, Battle of (February 14-22, 1943), a
 surprise attack by German armored units on Allied
 troops in Tunisia, that caused heavy American
 casualties and impeded Allied offensive plans, but
 gained no great advantage for weakening Axis forces
 in North Africa.

Katyn Massacre (spring 1940), the mass murder of an
 estimated 10,000 Polish soldiers and officers at
 Katyn Forest early in World War II, a crime widely
 attributed to the Soviets but which the Soviets
 blamed on the Nazis throughout the postwar period.
 In 1988 the Polish government placed blame for the
 massacre on the Soviets.

Kaunda, Kenneth David (1924- ), Zambian teacher and
 nationalist leader, who in 1958 led the breakaway
 movement from his country's African National
 Congress that formed the majority United National
 Independence party. In 1963, when Northern Rhodesia
 and Nyasaland were granted autonomy by Great
 Britain, pulling away from then white-ruled
 Southern Rhodesia, Kuanda became first prime
 minister of Northern Rhodesia, and in 1964 first
 president of the Republic of Zambia. After being
 democratically reelected in 1968, he set up a
 one-party state in 1973, and from then on ruled
 Zambia. Throughout his presidency, he was deeply
 involved in bringing world pressure to bear on
 South African racism, increasingly provided haven
 for 
AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC) exiles and
 guerrilla groups, and participated in efforts to
 solve such regional problems as the insurgencies in
 Zimbabwe, Angola, and Mozambique. In the 1980s he
 faced difficult economic problems at home, some of
 them stemming from the disruption of normal trading
 patterns in the region caused by the multiple wars
 and continuing insurgencies in the area.

Kaysone Phomvihane (1920- ), Laotian nationalist
 and Communist, who commanded 
PATHET LAO forces
 during the 
LAOTIAN CIVIL WAR, and became
 secretary-general of the Laotian Communist party
 (the People's Party of Laos, after 1975 the ruling
 Laos People's Revolutionary Party). In December
 1975, after Pathet Lao victory, he became first
 prime minister of the Laos People's Democratic
 Republic.

Kefauver, Carey Estes (1903-63), U.S. lawyer,
 Tennessee Democratic congressman (1939-49), and
 senator (1949-63), who was a 
NEW DEAL supporter
 in the 1930s and 1940s, and in the 1950s was the
 leading Senate investigator of organized crime and
 other monopolistic practices and groups. His
 1950-51 
KEFAUVER COMMITTEE hearings on organized
 crime made him a national figure, but he was not
 able to win the Democratic presidential nomination
 he sought in 1952 and 1956.

Kefauver Committee, a U.S. Senate committee led by
 Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee that
 investigated organized crime in the United States
 in a series of nationally televised hearings during
 1950 and 1951, and heightened public awareness of
 
MAFIA operations, although no indictments
 resulted.

Keitel, Wilhelm (1882-1946), German officer, who
 became head of the Nazi high command in 1938, and
 functioned as 
HITLER's chief staff adviser
 throughout World War II. He was found guilty of war
 crimes at the 
NUREMBERG TRIALS, and was executed
 on October 16, 1946.

Keller, Helen Adams (1880-1968), U.S. writer and
 speaker, who was made blind, deaf, and mute by
 illness when 19 months old, and who, with the aid
 of her teacher and companion, Annie Sullivan,
 became the world's leading advocate of aid for the
 blind and other physically handicapped people, and
 the main developer of the the American Foundation
 for the Blind.

Kellogg, Frank Billings (1856-1937), U.S. lawyer,
 who was the federal prosecutor in the 
STANDARD OIL

 case (1906-11) and other early major antitrust
 cases. He was Republican senator from Minnesota
 (1916-22), ambassador to Great Britain, and
 secretary of state during the 
COOLIDGE

 administration. With French foreign minister
 Aristide 
BRIAND, Kellogg initiated the
 
KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT, by which the United States,
 France, and 60 other nations stated their intention
 to attempt to cease using war as a means of
 settling international disputes. The treaty was
 ratified by the Senate, and Kellogg won a Nobel
 Peace Prize in 1929; the rise of fascism and
 militarism soon altered international
 circumstances.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris; August 27,
 1928), a treaty stating joint intent to attempt to
 halt the use of war as a means of settling
 international disputes, which was ultimately signed
 by 62 nations, but was never an effective tool for
 disarmament and against war. The rise of fascism
 and militarism in Germany, Japan, and Italy made
 far stronger practical measures necessary; when
 these were not forthcoming, the run-up to World War
 II began.

Kemal, Mustapha (1881-1938), Turkish national
 leader who in 1933 renamed himself 
ATATURK.

Kemp, Jack French (1935- ), U.S. political leader,
 in his early years a professional football player,
 a New York Republican congressman 1971-88, and an
 unsuccessful candidate for the 1988 Republican
 presidential nomination. On December 19, 1988,
 President-elect George 
BUSH named him housing and
 urban development secretary.

Kendi, Ruhollah, the given name of Ruhollah
 
KHOMEINI.

Kennan, George Frost (1904- ), U.S. State
 Department specialist on Soviet affairs, in Moscow
 1933-35 and 1944-46. In 1947, then in Washington,
 writing in the magazine Foreign Affairs as Mr. X,
 he authored the policy of 
CONTAINMENT, which
 became the basic 
COLD WAR policy of the United
 States and its allies. He was back in Moscow as
 American ambassador from 1952-53. By the mid-50s
 Kennan had greatly moderated his views, becoming
 sharply opposed to continuing 
U.S. COLD WAR
 policies, the 
VIETNAM WAR, and the continuing
 nuclear arms race.

Kennedy, Anthony McLeod (1936- ), U.S. lawyer, who
 served on the Ninth Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals
 1975-88, after having been recommended by
 then-California governor Ronald 
REAGAN. In 1988
 President Reagan nominated him to the Supreme
 Court, after the unsuccessful fight to confirm
 nominee Robert 
BORK. Kennedy was quickly
 confirmed by the Senate.

Kennedy, Edward Moore "Ted" (1932- ), U.S.
 political leader, the younger brother of John F.
 
KENNEDY and Robert F. 
KENNEDY and the son of
 Joseph P. 
KENNEDY; a Democratic senator from
 Massachusetts from 1962. He entered the senate
 while both of his brothers were still alive; after
 the 1968 assassination of his brother, Robert, he
 would most probably have been his party's
 presidential nominee in 1972. However, he was
 involved in the 
CHAPPAQUIDDICK incident of July
 1969, leaving the scene of an accidental death, and
 the resulting national furor destroyed his
 presidential possibilities then and into the late
 1980s. A liberal, Kennedy was a strong advocate in
 such areas as social legislation, nuclear arms
 limitation, and civil rights.

Kennedy, John Fitzgerald (1917-63), U.S. political
 leader, a Massachusetts Democratic congressman
 (1947-53) and two-term senator (1953-61), who
 became the 35th president of the United States
 (1961-63), and was assassinated while in office. In
 1960 he defeated Republican Richard M. 
NIXON by a
 very narrow margin in a presidential campaign that
 included, for the first time, a series of live
 
TELEVISION debates between the candidates. He was
 the first American Roman Catholic president. As
 president he was heavily involved in foreign
 affairs, including the failed 
BAY OF PIGS Cuban
 invasion of April 1961, the 
BERLIN WALL crisis
 that began late in 1962, and the 
CUBAN MISSILE

 CRISIS of October 1962, which came close to
 causing nuclear war between the United States and
 the Soviet Union. He also negotiated the 
NUCLEAR

 TEST BAN TREATY of 1963, initiated the 
PEACE

 CORPS, and attempted to develop new ties with
 Latin America in the 
ALLIANCE FOR PROGRESS.
 Domestically, many new programs were discussed, but
 few were accomplished, as he faced a largely
 hostile Congress, though he strongly supported the
 developing national campaigns for 
CIVIL RIGHTS

 that characterized the period. On November 22,
 1963, in Dallas, Texas, he was assassinated by Lee
 Harvey 
OSWALD, and was then succeeded by his vice
 president, Lyndon B. 
JOHNSON. On November 24,
 Oswald was himself assassinated by Jack 
RUBY.
 Although the 
WARREN COMMISSION, headed by Supreme
 Court chief justice Earl 
WARREN, declared Oswald
 the sole assassin, and found no conspiracy to
 assassinate the president, controversy continued to
 surround the assassination and its aftermath.

Kennedy, Joseph Patrick (1888-1969), U.S. financier
 and father of John, Robert, and Edward
 KENNEDY;
 he became a successful investor in the 1920s, held
 onto his gains after the 
CRASH OF 1929, and
 became Franklin D.
 ROOSEVELT'S head of the new


 SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION in 1934. In
 that position, he investigated many of his former
 securities industry colleagues and began to develop
 effective financial regulation. He was ambassador
 to Great Britain 1937-40.

Kennedy, Robert Francis (1925-68), U.S. lawyer, a
 brother of President John F.
 KENNEDY and Senator
 Edward M.
 KENNEDY, and a son of Joseph P.


 KENNEDY. He worked as a Justice Department and
 then Senate committee lawyer 1952-60, with major
 focus on labor union corruption, James
 HOFFA, and
 the Teamsters' Union. He managed his brother's 1960
 presidential campaign and became U.S. attorney
 general 1961-64, keeping that post in the
 JOHNSON
 administration after his brother's assassination. A
 liberal Democrat, he was a New York senator
 1965-68. In 1968 he campaigned for his party's
 presidential nomination; but his campaign and life
 were cut short in Los Angeles, on June 5, 1968,
 when he was shot by Sirhan Sirhan and died the next
 day.

Kennedy Round, the 1963-67 set of negotiations
 organized by the
 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND

 TRADE (GATT), which succeeded in substantially
 reducing international tariff and trade barriers.


Kennelly-Heaviside layer, alternate name for the


 IONOSPHERE, which enhances the quality of 
RADIO
 transmission, predicted in 1902 and found in 1924.


Kent State killings (May 4, 1970), attack on
 unarmed students by Ohio National Guard troops,
 called out during anti-
VIETNAM WAR demonstrations
 at Kent State University, killing 4 and wounding
 10. Massive national protests followed, further
 strengthening the U.S. antiwar movement. There were
 no convictions at a later trial of the National
 Guard members who had opened fire.

Kenya (Republic of Kenya), until 1963, a British
 colony. During the post-World War II period, a
 powerful independence movement arose, led by Jomo


 KENYATTA, that generated the unsuccessful 1952-56


 MAU MAU UPRISING. Independence came on December
 12, 1963; Jomo Kenyatta was Kenya's first prime
 minister, and was Kenya's first president on
 establishment of the republic in 1964.

Kenyatta, Jomo (1890-1978), Kenyan political leader
 and anthropologist, who became the leading figure
 in his country's national movement and a major
 figure in 20th-century African and worldwide
 anticolonial movements. A Kikuyu, he was secretary
 of and in 1929 represented the Kikuyu Central
 Association in London. He returned to London in
 1931 to study anthropology at the London School of
 Economics with Bronislaw 
MALINOWSKI, among
 others. One product of that period was Kenyatta's
 classic work, Facing Mount Kenya. He returned to
 Kenya in 1946 as head of the Kenya African Union
 and leader of the Kenyan independence movement.
 Although arrested by the British in 1952, charged
 with leading the
 MAU MAU UPRISING, and imprisoned
 for the next 9 years, he remained leader of the
 national movement and became head of the Kenya
 African National Union (KANU) in 1960. He was
 released in 1961, became prime minister in 1963,
 and in 1964 became the first president of the
 Republic of Kenya, holding that position until his
 death. As president, he built Kenya into a
 multitribal, economically viable, largely
 democratic state, though one with substantial and
 continuing economic and intratribal problems that
 surfaced more easily when Kenyatta's guidance and
 enormous prestige were removed.

Kenyon, Kathleen Mary (1906-78), British
 archeologist, who worked on many sites but was best
 known for her excavation (1952-58) of Jericho, in
 modern Jordan, which is one of the oldest cities
 known, dating back perhaps 9,000 years.

Kerensky, Alexander Fyodorovich (1881-1970), a
 Russian lawyer and
 SOCIALIST REVOLUTIONARY PARTY
 leader, who was a member of the executive committee
 of the
 PETROGRAD SOVIET OF WORKERS AND SOLDIERS

 DEPUTIES and then successively minister of
 justice, minister of war, and premier of the
 short-lived
 PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT of Russia
 after the
 FEBRUARY REVOLUTION of 1917. As war
 minister he unsuccessfully attempted to continue
 World War I on the Eastern Front and to resist the
 kinds of massive changes demanded by the


 BOLSHEVIKS and other forces on the left.
 Ultimately, his government had little support and
 was easily overthrown by a Bolshevik-led rebellion
 in Leningrad (then Petrograd), on October 24, 1917,
 the date of the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION. Kerensky
 spent the rest of his life as an emigre, in western
 Europe and the United States.

Kerensky Offensive (July 1, 1917), the only
 substantial Russian World War I action after the


 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, in which Russian armies
 attacked and scored early sucesses against
 Austro-German forces in Galicia. Reinforced German
 forces counterattacked on July 6, and smashed the
 Russian armies, which soon disintegrated. The
 Germans did not push farther into Russia.

Kerner Commission Report (National Advisory
 Commission on Civil Disorders), a U.S. commission
 appointed by President Lyndon
 JOHNSON and headed
 by Illinois governor Otto Kerner, that studied the
 causes of the 1966-68 U.S. race riots, such as that
 at
 WATTS. The commission reported on March 2,
 1968, placing major blame for the riots on
 pervasive white racism and adverse social
 conditions, and recommending a series of major
 reforms.

Kerr-McGee nuclear accident (January 6, 1986),
 bursting of a container of nuclear material at the
 Kerr-McGee facility in Gore, Oklahoma, killing 1
 person and hospitalizing 100. The only previously
 reported U.S. nuclear accident directly causing
 death was the
 IDAHO FALLS NUCLEAR EXPLOSION of
 1961.

Kesselring, Albert (1885-1960), German officer, who
 saw service in World War I, became German air force
 chief of staff in 1936, and during World War II
 commanded air forces during the invasion of Poland,
 the Battle of
 FRANCE, the Battle of 
BRITAIN,
 and in the Mediterranean, where he ultimately
 became commander of all
 AXIS forces, conducting
 the long retreat through Italy. At the end of the
 war he was German commander on the Western Front.
 After the war, he was tried for the murders of
 prisoners of war and was imprisoned as a war
 criminal, but was released in 1952.

Keynes, John Maynard (1883-1946), British economist
 whose major work, The General Theory of Employment,
 Interest, and Money (1935), was seen by many during
 the
 GREAT DEPRESSION and thereafter to provide a
 theoretical basis for widespread and continuing
 government economic intervention, with the aim of
 creating full employment and prosperity.

KGB (Committee of State Security), the main Soviet
 espionage and counter-espionage organization from
 1954; it was also responsible for some aspects of
 internal security, though its predecessors,
 including the
 CHEKA of the
 OCTOBER REVOLUTION
 and the
 NKVD of the
 GREAT PURGE of the 1930s,
 were more deeply concerned with internal secret
 police functions.

Khama, Seretse (1921-80), hereditary chief of the
 Bamanwato people, the largest group in Botswana,
 then Bechuanaland; he studied law in Great Britain,
 gave up his hereditary chieftaincy in a dispute,
 and returned home in 1956 to become his country's
 leading advocate of independence. Khama became the
 first president of Botswana (1966-80). He was a
 builder of multiracial democracy, who opposed
 racism in South Africa while attempting to continue
 peaceful trading and political relations with his
 much stronger neighbor.

Khe Sanh, Siege of (January-April, 1968), an attack
 by North Vietnamese forces on the U.S. Marine base
 at Khe Sanh near the Vietnam-Laos border as part of
 the
 TET OFFENSIVE. The siege was lifted in April;
 the base was abandoned in July, generating
 substantial criticism of the original decision to
 defend it.

Khmer Rouge (Red Khmers), the army of the Communist
 party of Kampuchea, winner of the
 CAMBODIAN CIVIL

 WAR. Since then, the term "Khmer Rouge" has often
 been used as a synonym for the Communist government
 of Kampuchea, and later for the main Kampuchean
 guerrilla force fighting the Vietnamese army during
 the
 KAMPUCHEA-VIETNAM WAR, although the military
 organization itself was dissolved in 1981.

Khomeini, Ruhollah (Ruhollah Kendi; 1900-89),
 Iranian Shiite Islamic religious leader
 (ayatollah), who led demonstrations against the
 westernizing policies of Shah Mohammed Reza
 
PAHLEVI in 1963, and was subsequently exiled. He
 led Iranian Islamic fundamentalist forces from
 exile in France until his return to Iran on
 February l, 1979. He then became undisputed
 religious and political leader of Iran, reversing
 the course of modernization and westernization
 pursued by the Pahlevi shahs, and ultimately
 destroying all internal opposition in a prolonged
 reign of terror. In power, he fostered both
 international terrorism and Islamic fundamentalist
 movements throughout the world, and pursued sharply
 anti-Western and in particular anti-American
 policies, including the actions that generated the


 HOSTAGE CRISIS of 1979-80. After Iran's heavy
 losses in the
 IRAN-IRAQ WAR of the 1980s his
 regime made some attempts to normalize
 relationships with many Western countries, but in
 1989 Khomeini's open call for the murder of author
 Salman
 RUSHDIE made such normalization
 impossible.

Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich (1894-1971), Soviet
 Communist Party official, who fought in the


 RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR and rose in the party hierarchy
 during the 1930s, becoming Ukrainian party leader
 in 1938, a Politburo member in 1939, and Central
 Committee secretary in 1949. After
 STALIN'S death
 in 1953, he took over effective control of his
 party and in 1955 took over national leadership
 after a successful power struggle that toppled
 Georgi
 MALENKOV. In 1955 he and U.S. president
 Dwight D.
 EISENHOWER met in
 GENEVA, at the
 first postwar summit meeting between the heads of
 the two superpowers. Khrushchev's extraordinary
 1956
 SECRET SPEECH, attacking the crimes of
 Joseph
 STALIN, had an immense impact on
 Communists all over the world, causing massive
 splits and defections, and ushered in the
 THAW
 within the Soviet Union. He survived early internal
 opposition, expelled Malenkov and others from the
 Central Committee in 1957, and consolidated power
 as Soviet premier in 1958. Internationally, he
 operated rather erratically, fostering
 DETENTE
 and improved relations with Yugoslavia while at the
 same time becoming involved in several dangerous


 COLD WAR moves. In 1961, facing and testing a
 young American president, John F.
 KENNEDY,
 Khrushchev became involved in a major crisis over
 the building of the
 BERLIN WALL. In 1962 the
 world came very close to humanity-destroying
 nuclear war at the time of the
 CUBAN MISSILE

 CRISIS. Khrushchev was forced to withdraw Soviet
 missiles from Cuba, a grave blow to Soviet prestige
 at the time. That blow and serious internal
 economic problems led to his loss of power and
 forced retirement in October 1964.

Khrushchev's secret speech, a February 1956 address
 by Nikita
 KHRUSHCHEV to the 20th Congress of the
 Soviet Communist party, in which he attacked the
 police state and long reign of terror developed by
 Joseph
 STALIN from the early 1930s, exposing many
 of the multifold crimes of the Stalin era.
 Khrushchev's extraordinary speech had an immense
 impact on Communists all over the world, causing
 massive splits and defections, and ushered in the


 THAW within the Soviet Union.

Kiangsi Soviet (1931-34), the Kiangsi Soviet
 Republic, organized by the Chinese Communists in
 their rural Kiangsi base area. At its peak it
 governed approximately 4 million people and
 mustered a 200,000-strong army. It was ultimately
 destroyed by
 KUOMINTANG offensives; the Communist
 army then fled north through mountainous areas in
 the
 LONG MARCH.

kidney transplant, replacement of a diseased kidney
 with a healthy one from a donor; first attempted in
 the early 1900s, sometimes using a pig or dog
 kidney, but first performed successfully in 1954 by
 a Harvard medical team led by Joseph E. Murray.
 Kidney
 TRANSPLANTS continued to be performed even
 though an "artificial kidney" dialysis machine was
 developed in 1943 by Dutch physician Willem Johan
 Kolff.

Kiel Mutiny (November 1918), the rebellion of
 German sailors at the Kiel naval base, which began
 the
 GERMAN REVOLUTION of 1918.

Kilburn, Peter, one of the American
 LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, an American University librarian, who
 was kidnapped on December 3, 1984, and murdered by
 his captors on April 17, 1986.

Kill Devil Hills, sand dunes near Kitty Hawk, North
 Carolina, from which the
 WRIGHT brothers made the
 first engine-powered 
AIRPLANE flight in 1903.

Kim Il Sung (Kim Sung Chu; 1912- ), Korean
 Communist Party activist from 1931 who was an
 anti-Japanese guerrilla leader during World War II.
 He became head of the North Korean provisional
 government 1946-48 and was prime minister and
 effectively dictator of the Democratic People's
 Republic of Korea from 1948. In that period he took
 his country into the 
KOREAN WAR, after that war
 continuing to mount a cold war against South Korea,
 with some tentative moves toward normalization of
 relations occurring only in the late 1980s. From
 the mid-50s he developed around himself a massive
 cult of personality.

Kimmel, Husband Edward (1882-1968), U.S. naval
 officer, who saw service in World War I and was
 commander of the Pacific Fleet at
 PEARL HARBOR on
 December 7, 1941. He was relieved at the end of
 December, faced a board of inquiry, retired in
 1942, and was cleared of dereliction of duty in
 1946.

King, Ernest Joseph (1878-1956), U.S. naval
 officer, who became commander of the Atlantic fleet
 in February 1941, and in the early days of World
 War II became both U.S. fleet commander-in-chief
 and chief of naval operations. In those capacities
 he was chief American naval officer throughout the
 war, fighting a two-front war and winning on both,
 with what was ultimately by far the largest navy in
 the world. He was also a key advisor to Franklin
 Delano
 ROOSEVELT, and was present at all of the
 major conferences of Allied leaders throughout the
 war. He became a five-star admiral in December
 1944.

King, Martin Luther, Jr., (1929-68), the major U.S.
 Black leader of the 20th century, a Protestant
 minister whose policy of nonviolent confrontation
 became the basic approach of the successful
 CIVIL

 RIGHTS MOVEMENT of the 1950s and 1960s, and who
 personally led many of the major campaigns and
 demonstrations of that movement. He became a
 national figure through his leadership of the
 landmark
 MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT of 1955-56. In
 1957 he was a founder and first president of the


 SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE (SCLC),
 and from that position developed the major series
 of campaigns and confrontations that ultimately
 broke the southern system of white supremacy. These
 included the actions at
 BIRMINGHAM and 
SELMA,
 Alabama, and at Albany, Georgia, and also included
 the 
MARCH on
 WASHINGTON civil rights
 demonstration of August 28, 1963, with his "
I HAVE

 A DREAM" speech as its centerpiece. In 1964 he was
 awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. He continued his
 civil rights work through the mid-60s, extending it
 into the north, joining economic issues with civil
 rights issues and also opposing the war in Vietnam.
 He was assassinated by James Earl
 RAY in Memphis,
 Tennessee, on April 4, 1968.

King, William Lyon Mackenzie (1874-1950), Canadian
 economist, reformer, Liberal leader, and three-time
 prime minister (1921-26, 1926-30, 1935-48), who
 began his government service in 1900 as a labor
 department deputy prime minister, appointed by his
 mentor, Prime Minister Wilfrid
 LAURIER. He
 entered parliament for the first time 1908-11 and
 then became a labor mediator in the United States.
 In 1919 he entered parliament again, also
 succeeding Laurier as Liberal party leader. During
 his long leadership of party and country, he moved
 Canada toward economic and political independence
 from Great Britain. He did not strongly oppose the
 rise of fascism during the interwar period but
 after 1937 developed a close personal and political
 relationship with Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT, moving
 into a close Canadian-U.S. alliance after the Nazi
 victories of 1940. After World War II he also
 guarded against dependence upon the United States.
 During his final years in power, he began to build
 what would become Canada's very substantial social
 service support network.

King David Hotel bombing (July 22, 1946), bombing
 of the British office wing of Jerusalem's King
 David Hotel by the 
IRGUN ZVAI LEUMI, under the
 direct supervision of Menachim 
BEGIN, killing 91
 people, 17 of them Jews. The
 HAGANAH had
 denounced the proposed bombing in advance;
 afterward the Irgun and Begin were sharply
 criticized by the main Jewish organizations of the
 time.

King Tut, popular name for
 TUTANKHAMEN, Egyptian
 pharaoh (1361-52 
B.C.) whose tomb was excavated
 in 1922 by English archeologist Howard
 CARTER and
 much caught the public fancy.

Kinnock, Neil Gordon (1942- ), British
 LABOUR

 PARTY leader, in parliament from 1970, a member of
 the national executive committee of his party from
 1978 and leader of the party and the parliamentary
 opposition from 1983. A moderate socialist, he took
 the Labour party on a course designed to capture
 the independent center in British politics. A
 superb speaker, he was paid the supreme compliment
 of emulation by U.S. senator Joseph
 BIDEN, who
 appropriated some of Kinnock's lines during the
 1988 presidential nomination campaign, then was
 forced to leave the presidential race after the
 appropriation was discovered.

Kinsey, Alfred Charles (1894-1956), U.S. sex
 researcher who directed the Institute for Sex
 Research at Indiana University from 1942. His
 pioneering works, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male
 (1948), popularly called the "Kinsey Report," and
 Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953), drew on
 personal interviews, rather than on firsthand
 observation, as in the later
 MASTERS and


 JOHNSON works. Though badly dated, Kinsey's work
 was still being referred to more than 35 years
 later, no comparable work having taken its place.


Kiribati (Republic of Kiribati), until 1979, the
 British Gilbert Islands colony; independence and


 COMMONWEALTH membership came on July 12, 1979.

Kirkland, Joseph Lane (1922- ), U.S. labor leader
 who was an assistant to George
 MEANY and
 secretary-treasurer of the 
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF

 LABOR-CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS
 (AFL-CIO), before succeeding Meany in the
 presidency of the organization in 1979.

Kirkley, Howard Leslie (1911-89), British pacifist
 and international relief worker, who became active
 in post-World War II European relief work, and then
 chairman of the then-small Oxford Committee for
 Famine Relief in 1951. He spent the next 23 years
 (1951-74) in developing Oxfam into a major
 international relief organization, also moving
 Oxfam into long-term Third World self-development
 projects. He remained active as secretary-emeritus
 of Oxfam and in other relief organizations after
 his retirement.

Kirov, Sergei Mironovich (1886-1934), Leningrad
 Communist Party leader, whose assassination in 1934
 was used by Joseph 
STALIN as a pretext for
 beginning the
 GREAT PURGE of the late 1930s. The
 Kirov assassination was in all probability ordered
 by Stalin, though the evidence adduced to support
 this view is not yet entirely conclusive.

Kishi, Nobusuki (1896- ), Japanese government
 official, who in the late 1930s was involved in
 industrial matters in occupied Manchuria, and
 during World War II was responsible for directing
 much of Japan's wartime production; brother of
 Eisaku
 SATO. Afterward adjudged a war criminal,
 he was imprisoned from 1945 to 1948, resumed his
 political career as a member of the Diet in 1953,
 and was prime minister from 1957 to 1960, resigning
 after forcing through a United States-Japanese
 treaty, against powerful opposition.

Kishinev pogroms, a series of Russian anti-Jewish
 attacks, which began in the spring of 1903 at
 Kishinev in Bessarabia (Moldavian SSR). The first
 attacks killed hundreds and caused major property
 damage; subsequent widespread attacks killed an
 estimated 50,000 Jews. The pogroms were the first
 major Russian anti-Jewish attacks since 1881; they
 were the proximate cause of massive Jewish
 migrations to the United States and Palestine, and
 enormously strengthened both the internal Russian
 revolutionary movement and the 
ZIONIST movement.


Kissinger, Henry Alfred (1923- ), U.S. teacher,
 author, and consultant, who became president
 Richard M.
 NIXON'S national security assistant in
 1968, soon becoming Nixon's key foreign affairs
 advisor as well. Kissinger negotiated the end of
 U.S. involvement in the
 VIETNAM WAR, with mutual
 prisoner exchange, in January 1973. He and
 LE DUC

 THO, the North Vietnamese negotiator, shared a
 Nobel Peace Prize for this in 1973, which he
 accepted and Le Duc Tho declined. He became
 secretary of state in 1973 and continued in that
 position during the
 FORD administration after the
 
WATERGATE-inspired resignation of President
 Nixon, in those years engaging in 
SHUTTLE

 DIPLOMACY, an attempt to personally mediate
 Arab-Israeli differences in the Middle East.

Kitchener, Horatio Herbert (1850-1916), British
 general, who became a national hero in 1898, after
 his victory over Sudanese forces at the Battle of
 Omdurman. He was chief of staff and then commander
 of British South African forces during the
 BOER

 WAR, held several colonial posts, and then became
 secretary of state for war when World War I began
 in 1914. He helped turn the small peacetime British
 army into a large wartime army, although in
 constant conflict with others in the cabinet.
 Kitchener was killed in 1916, on his way to Russia,
 when the cruiser Hampshire was sunk by a mine off
 the Orkney Islands.

Kitty Hawk, North Carolina town, near which the


 WRIGHT brothers made the first engine-powered


 AIRPLANE flight in 1903, at Kill Devil Hills.

Klein, Melanie Reizes (1882-1960), Austrian-British
 psychoanalyst who pioneered in child


 PSYCHOANALYSIS. Interested in the field because of
 her own psychoanalysis in 1912, Klein used "play
 therapy"-observation of infants at play-to uncover
 the emotional states of her very young patients.
 She moved to England in 1926, and there developed a
 following; later she also worked with troubled
 adults.

Kleist, Paul Ludwig Ewald von (1881-1954), German
 officer, who saw service in World War I and became
 a general during the interwar period. He commanded
 the
 PANZER army group that broke through at Sedan
 during the Battle of
 FRANCE, and Panzer armies in
 Yugoslavia and in the Soviet Union. He played a key
 role in the captures of Kiev,
 SEVASTOPOL, and
 Rostov but ultimately fell back before Soviet
 armies after the defeat at 
STALINGRAD, and was
 relieved of command in March 1944. He was
 imprisoned for war crimes in Yugoslavia after the
 war, and then in the Soviet Union, where he died in
 prison.

Kluge, Hans Gunther von (1882-1944), German
 officer, who saw service in World War I, was an
 army commander during the invasions of Poland and
 France and on the Russian front, and was Western
 Front commander July-August, 1944. He was relieved
 of command by Adolf
 HITLER, who suspected him of
 being involved in the July 1944 assassination
 attempt; shortly afterward he committed suicide.

Knudsen, William (1879-1948), Danish-American
 industrial manager, who moved ahead in the
 automobile industry to ultimately become head of
 General Motors (1937-40) and was during World War
 II head of arms production in the war department
 (1942-45).

Koestler, Arthur (1905-83), Hungarian-British
 writer, a Communist 1932-38, whose best known work
 was Darkness at Noon, an anti-Communist novel based
 on the
 MOSCOW TRIALS of the 1930s. He and his
 wife committed suicide together in 1983, while he
 was ill.

Kohl, Helmut (1930- ). West German Christian
 Democratic party leader in the
 RHINELAND from
 1956, deputy national chairman of his party
 1969-73, and party chairman from 1973. In 1976 he
 became leader of the opposition in the federal
 parliament and in 1982 chancellor of the Federal
 Republic of Germany. As chancellor, he developed a
 somewhat independent course in international
 affairs during the late 1980s, responding to
 internal pressure to remove nuclear 
MISSILES
 while also remaining in the Western alliance.
 Domestically, he cut German social safety net
 spending, as economic problems developed in the
 mid-80s.

Kolchak, Alexander Vasilievich (1874-1920), Czarist
 admiral of the Black Sea Fleet and commander of
 White armies fighting in Siberia during the


 RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR; his forces were defeated by
 1920, and he was captured and executed that year by
 the
 BOLSHEVIKS.

Kolmogorov, Andrey Nikolayevich (1903- ), Soviet
 mathematician, who largely shaped 20th-century
 mathematics in the Soviet Union. His own work
 spread widely in areas such as probability theory,
 topology,
 CYBERNETICS, and information theory.
 Through his textbooks and influence on school
 curricula, he influenced decades of Soviet
 mathematicians.

Kolubra, Battle of (December 3-9, 1914), World War
 I battle, in which Austrian forces invading Serbia
 had taken Belgrade and were pursuing the Serbian
 army in difficult terrain; but the Serbs
 counterattacked, driving the Austrians back and
 recapturing Belgrade.

Konev, Ivan Stepanovich (1897-1973), Soviet officer
 who saw service in World War I, fought in the Red
 Army during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR, and became an
 army commander in the autumn of 1941, playing a
 major role in the defense of
 MOSCOW and the
 subsequent Soviet counteroffensive. Armies under
 his command fought at the Battle of
 KURSK and
 thereafter fought their way into Germany,
 ultimately taking Berlin. After the war he held a
 series of key government positions, including those
 of defense minister, commander of the
 WARSAW PACT
 armies, and member of the Communist party Central
 Committee.

Konoe, Fumimaro (1891-1945), Japanese political
 leader, who was prime minister (1937-39; 1940-41)
 during the invasion of China and the run-up to
 World War II. He committed suicide in 1945, while
 awaiting trial as a war criminal.

Kon-Tiki, balsa-wood raft sailed across the Pacific
 in 1947 by Norwegian explorer Thor 
HEYERDAHL, and
 the title of his 1948 best-seller about the voyage.


Korea, at the beginning of the 20th century, a
 Chinese protectorate. It was taken by Japan in 1910
 and held until the end of World War II, then
 divided into U.S. and Soviet occupation zones that
 later became independent nations. The
 REPUBLIC OF

 KOREA became an independent state on August 15,
 1948. The
 DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF KOREA
 became an independent state on September 9, 1948.


Koreagate, 1970s South Korean government
 influence-buying operation in the United States,
 run by businessman Tongsun Park, who made
 substantial payments to many U.S. congressmen in an
 apparently rather successful effort to buy their
 support for Korean national aims. After a major
 investigation, accompanied by much media attention
 and headed by
 WATERGATE prosecutor Leon Jaworski,
 one Congressman, Richard T. Hanna, pleaded guilty;
 one other was indicted but not convicted; and three
 more were reprimanded by Congress.

Korean Air Lines Flight 007 (August 30, 1983), the
 Korean civilian airliner that was shot down by
 Soviet interceptor planes, after straying into
 Soviet air space near Soviet Sakhalin Island bases
 from the Sea of Japan. All 269 people on board were
 killed.

Korean War (1950-53), a civil war between North
 Korea and South Korea, with quick intervention on
 the side of South Korea by United States and other,
 much smaller
 UNITED NATIONS forces, and later
 intervention on the side of North Korea by


 PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA forces. North Korean
 and Chinese casualty figures are unavailable;
 estimates indicate 1 million South Korean civilian
 casualties, 300,000 South Korean military
 casualties, and 150,000 UN (including U.S.)
 casualties. The war began on June 25, 1950, with a
 surprise attack by the North Koreans driving toward
 Seoul against much weaker Republic of Korea (ROK)
 forces. The UN condemned the invasion, calling for
 an immediate cease-fire. On June 27, President
 Harry S.
 TRUMAN ordered General Douglas
 
MACARTHUR to give air and sea support to ROK
 forces, and on June 30 ordered in U.S. ground
 forces, which began to move in from Japan. In
 August and September, UN forces established a
 defensive line across the Korean peninsula, holding
 it with difficulty. On September 15, UN forces
 effected division-strength amphibious landings at


 INCHON, 150 miles north of the defensive line,
 while the defensive forces to the south broke out
 to meet them at and retake Seoul. Combined UN
 forces then pursued North Korean forces north,
 taking Pyongyang on October 20 and moving across
 the 38th Parallel toward the Yalu River boundary
 with the People's Republic of China, which had
 threatened to come into the war if the 38th
 Parallel were crossed. Having completely
 underestimated Chinese intentions and strength,
 MacArthur continued to move north toward the Yalu;
 on November 25 his forces were struck by a Chinese
 Red Army main force of 18 divisions, numbering an
 estimated 180,000 men, with ready combat reserves
 of 100,000 more men in nearby Manchuria. UN forces
 were driven back with heavy losses, western forces
 ultimately developing a defensive line north of
 Seoul in mid-December, and eastern forces of more
 than 100,000 troops being evacuated from Hungnam by
 sea, along with a similar number of civilians. On
 January 1, 1951, an estimated 500,000 Chinese and
 North Korean troops resumed their offensive, taking
 Seoul on January 4, but then stalling and
 retreating in February and March; UN forces retook
 Seoul on March 14. MacArthur was dismissed by
 President Truman on April 11, when MacArthur
 publicly attacked the U.S. limited-war policy,
 demanding the right to bomb Chinese bases in
 Manchuria, which Truman refused to do. During April
 and May, UN forces withstood a further
 Chinese-North Korean offensive and then
 counterattacked, driving north and in June
 consolidating a new front north of Seoul, which
 became a truce line when negotations began in July
 1951. Negotiations broke down in August, and
 limited war resumed; armistice negotiations began
 at Panmunjon on November 12. Fighting resumed in
 June 1953; final negotiations began in July, and an
 armistice was concluded on July 27, 1953, with the
 battle line becoming the North Korea-South Korea
 boundary line.

Korematsu v. United States (1944), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision, upholding the 1942 federal
 Executive Order removing large numbers of
 Japanese-Americans from their West Coast homes and
 placing them in 
CONCENTRATION CAMPS, the
 rationale of the Court majority at the time being
 wartime necessity caused by security
 considerations. The Court minority called the
 action overt racism, and that view in the long run
 prevailed. President Gerald R.
 FORD rescinded the
 Executive Order and apologized for the action in
 1972; reparations were voted by Congress in 1988.


Kornilov Affair, an attempted coup by Russian
 general Lavr Kornilov, the
 PROVISIONAL

 GOVERNMENT'S chief of staff, in August 1917. In
 support of the
 KERENSKY government, Kornilov
 ordered his troops to march on Petrograd and
 destroy the growing power of the
 PETROGRAD

 SOVIET. But
 RED GUARD and revolutionary armed
 forces units in the city mobilized to meet
 Kornilov's forces, while Kornilov's troops refused
 to move in force against the capital. The failure
 of the coup greatly strengthened the
 BOLSHEVIK
 position in the weeks before the 
OCTOBER

 REVOLUTION.

Korolev, Sergei (1906-66), Soviet aeronautical
 engineer, who became chief Soviet 
ROCKET fuel and
 spacecraft designer and a leading figure in
 humanity's exploration of space, beginning his work
 on liquid rocket fuel in the early 1930s. Korolev
 designed the
 VOSTOK series of spacecraft, the
 first of which carried Yuri
 GAGARIN on the first
 manned orbit of Earth on April 12, 1961; he also
 designed the first Soviet space 
SATELLITES and
 space probes to the
 MOON and planets.

Korsun, Battle of (January-February 1944),
 encirclement and partial destruction of German
 forces on the Dnieper River by major Russian forces
 during the Soviet winter offensive of 1944; the
 remainder of the Germans fought their way out of
 the encirclement.

Kosygin, Alexei (1904-80), Soviet industrial
 manager who became a Communist official in 1938, a
 member of his party's Central Committee in 1939,
 and then held a succession of party and government
 posts, becoming a deputy prime minister in 1940 and
 a Politburo member in 1948. He was out of power
 briefly in 1953, made a comeback in the mid-50s,
 supported Khrushchev in the intra-party dispute of
 1957, emerged as chief of Gosplan and therefore
 chief Soviet economic planner in 1959, and as first
 deputy prime minister in 1964. He and Leonid


 BREZHNEV shared power in the "collective"
 leadership that succeeded Khrushchev, Kosygin being
 responsible for internal economic matters. But
 Kosygin lost power in the late 1960s and early
 1970s, Brezhnev then becoming undisputed leader of
 the Soviet Union. After his 1976 heart attack,
 Kosygin's duties were taken over by others,
 although his formal resignation came in 1980,
 shortly before his death.

Krebs, Hans Adolf (1900-81), German-British
 biochemist who in 1937 discovered a sequence of
 chemical reactions, called the Krebs or citric acid
 cycle, by which cells obtain energy for use in the
 body. For his work in outlining basic metabolic
 reactions, he shared the 1953 Nobel Prize for
 Physiology or Medicine. He also discovered the urea
 cycle, the series of chemical reactions by which
 the liver produces urine.

Kreuger, Ivar "The Match King" (1880-1932), Swedish
 industrialist, who started with his family's
 match-producing business in 1907, and built a
 worldwide match production empire. His enterprise
 fell apart in the early years of the 
GREAT

 DEPRESSION; it then became clear that he also had
 been engaged in massive financial misconduct during
 his years of financial and industrial eminence.
 Kreuger committed suicide in 1932.

Kreisky, Bruno (1911- ), Austrian socialist leader
 and diplomat, who was foreign minister 1959-66 and
 chancellor 1970-83, in the latter position
 continuing Austria's role as a waystation and haven
 for refugees from Soviet-bloc countries and
 attempting to expand government social service
 activities.

Kristallnacht, the German word for
 CRYSTAL NIGHT,
 the Nazi pogrom of November 9-10, 1938.

Kronstadt Rebellion (March 1921), a rebellion
 against the
 BOLSHEVIK government by previously
 sympathetic sailors of the Baltic Fleet, based at
 the Kronstadt naval base, near Leningrad. These
 were Bolshevik supporters, who had joined in the


 OCTOBER REVOLUTION of 1917, and although their
 rebellion was quickly suppressed by army units
 personally led by Leon
 TROTSKY and General
 Mikhail
 TUKHACHEVSKY, it significantly
 contributed to
 LENIN'S decision to end
 WAR

 COMMUNISM and institute his
 NEW ECONOMIC POLICY.


Krupp family, the
 RUHR-based steelmaking family
 that became chief armaments supplier to the
 Prussian army in the latter third of the 19th
 century, and continued to perform that function for
 the German army during World Wars I and II. From
 1931, even before
 HITLER'S rise to power, the
 Krupps were closely tied to the Nazis, the family's
 oldest son, Alfred, becoming a
 BLACKSHIRT (SS) in
 1931. The Krupps used slave laborers out of


 CONCENTRATION CAMPS during World War II; Alfred
 Krupp was convicted of having done so after the war
 and sent to prison for it, the family's holdings
 being confiscated. But a year later, he was
 pardoned by the American occupation authorities,
 the Krupps' properties were restored, and the
 Krupps went on to become West Germany's steelmakers
 once again, after promising that they would not
 produce any more war materials.

Krupskaya, Nadezhda (1869-1939), Russian
 revolutionary, who married Vladimir
 LENIN in 1898
 while they were both in Siberian exile, and later
 worked with him to develop the
 BOLSHEVIK party.
 After the
 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, she worked on
 social welfare and eduational matters, but had
 little impact on subsequent Soviet development.

Kubitschek, Juscelino (1902-1976), Brazilian
 doctor, who entered politics in the early 1930s,
 served in several posts during the
 VARGAS
 dictatorship, and was elected to the presidency
 (1955-61) after Vargas' 1954 suicide. Kubitschek
 took Brazil on an expansive and inflationary
 course, building Brasilia, embarking upon massive
 public works projects, and amassing a large
 national debt. He had planned to run again in 1965
 but was barred from doing so by the military coup
 of 1964. The military rulers of the country then
 continued essentially on the economic course he had
 charted and came very close to bankrupting Brazil,
 while at the same time sharply restricting
 Brazilian democracy.

Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth (1926- ), Swiss-American
 psychiatrist, who pioneered in focusing on the care
 of terminally ill patients and the need to help and
 support their families and friends, writing widely
 influential works, notably On Death and Dying
 (1969).

Kuhn, Thomas Samuel (1922- ), U.S. historian and
 sociologist of the development of scientific
 knowledge. In works such as The Structure of
 Scientific Revolutions (1962), he introduced the
 idea of a paradigm-a shared body of experimental
 approaches and interpretations, such as that
 stemming from the work of Newton or


 EINSTEIN-within which scientists work, and with
 which their results must be reconciled, suggesting
 that revolutionary science occurs when results
 force a crisis of confidence in the paradigm,
 causing it to be overthrown.

Ku Klux Klan (KKK), originally a secret racist and
 terrorist organization formed after the Civil War
 in the former Confederate states, which used murder
 and intimidation to destroy Black gains during
 Reconstruction. Starting in 1915, the KKK
 reorganized and became a national racist,
 anti-immigrant, antidissident organization,
 achieving a membership of 1.5-4 million members and
 considerable political power, especially in the
 South and Midwest. It lost most of its power during
 the Depression and World War II, reviving again as
 a group of small, loosely organized terrorist
 splinter organizations from the 1950s through the
 1980s.

kulaks, Russian family farmers, former peasants,
 who had been encouraged to become small landowners
 by the Czarist government land reforms of the early
 1900s. In the late 1920s, when Joseph
 STALIN'S
 first
 FIVE-YEAR PLAN forcibly collectivized
 Soviet agriculture, he ordered the "liquidation" of
 the kulaks. The resulting purges and accompanying
 famines resulted in the deaths of an estimated
 10-20 million Soviet citizens.

Kun, Bela (1886-1939), Hungarian Communist, who led
 the short-lived Hungarian Socialist Republic
 (March-August 1919). He had been a Social Democrat
 before World War I, was captured by the Russians
 during that war while serving in the Austrian army,
 and became a
 BOLSHEVIK while in Russia, then
 working with
 LENIN. In 1918 he returned to
 Hungary and was soon jailed, but came out of prison
 to become leader of Hungary. His Red Army had early
 successes against Rumanian and Czech forces, but he
 was ultimately forced to flee when Rumanian forces
 occupied Budapest. He later became a leader of the
 
COMMUNIST INTERNATIONAL but was executed in the
 Soviet Union in 1939, as part of the Soviet
 GREAT

 PURGE of the period.

Kung, Hans (1928- ), Swiss theologian, who in 1970
 became the first major Roman Catholic thinker to
 reject the idea of the pope's infallibility, in his
 work Infallible? An Inquiry. Earlier noted for his
 ecumenical work under Pope
 JOHN XXIII, Kung came
 into conflict with Pope
 JOHN PAUL II over the
 church's suppression of dissent, then was censured
 by the Vatican and forbidden to teach under Roman
 Catholic auspices.

Kuomintang, the Chinese political party founded by


 SUN YAT-SEN in 1914, and reorganized with Soviet
 advisers and on the
 BOLSHEVIK Party model
 beginning in 1922. During the
 NORTHERN EXPEDITION
 of 1926,
 CHIANG KAI-SHEK rose to leadership of
 the party, split with its Communist component and
 his Soviet advisers, and in 1927 began the
 CHINESE

 CIVIL WAR, with the
 SHANGHAI MASSACRE. From 1929
 until 1949, the Kuomintang was the ruling party of
 the Republic of China, ultimately losing mainland
 China to the Communists in 1949, and then fleeing
 to Taiwan, where it has continued to govern and
 claim legitimacy as the governing party of China.


Kurdish national movement, nationalist movement by
 Kurdish peoples, promised autonomy, after four
 centuries of Ottoman rule, by the Treaty of


 SEVRES (1920) following World War I, a promise
 broken when the Treaty of
 LAUSANNE (1923)
 superseded Sevres. Since then, Kurdish minorities
 in Turkey, Iraq, and Iran have aspired to autonomy,
 often moving into armed rebellion. There were
 Kurdish uprisings in Turkey and Iraq in the 1920s
 and 1930s, those in Iraq led by Mustafa
 al-
BARZANI. After World War II, Barzani led in
 the formation of a Kurdish republic in northern
 Iran, with Soviet backing, but Kurdish forces were
 defeated by the Iranians in 1946, and the republic
 was dissolved. Barzani returned to Iraq after the
 revolution of 1958 and led a long rebellion against
 the Iraqi government (1960-70), ultimately securing
 guarantees of Kurdish autonomy. He then led his
 people in renewed rebellion, after breakdown of
 that agreement in 1974; their long guerrilla war
 continues today. Iran's
 KHOMEINI government
 suppressed Iran's Kurds on coming to power, but
 during the
 IRAN-IRAQ WAR of the 1980s supported
 the Iraqi Kurdish insurgents. On conclusion of the
 Iran-Iraq War, the Iraqis moved large forces
 against the Kurds, using both conventional
 armaments and
 CHEMICAL WARFARE, their chemical
 weapons causing large numbers of civilian
 casualties. Hundreds of thousands of Kurds fled
 across the Turkish and Iranian borders.

Kursk, Battle of (July 1943), the failed last World
 War II German offensive on the Eastern Front, which
 had hardly started before it encountered a powerful
 Soviet counteroffensive. Kursk was primarily a
 huge
 TANK battle, the largest known, in which
 large masses of Soviet armor and anti-tank weapons
 won over a German concentration that included 17
 mechanized divisions, the Germans then retreating.

Kurusu, Saburo (1886-1954), Japanese diplomat who
 had held many posts during three decades in the
 foreign office, including that of ambassador to
 Nazi Germany, before coming to the United States as
 a negotiator in November 1941. He was with U.S.
 Secretary of State Cordell
 HULL when the 
PEARL
 
HARBOR attack occurred.

Kut, Siege of (December 7, 1915-April 29, 1916),
 World War I Turkish siege of Kut, in Mesopotamia,
 to which British forces had retreated after their
 defeat at
 CTESIPHON in November 1916. After
 relief forces failed to get through, 8,000 British
 and Indian troops ultimately surrendered to the
 Turks.

Kuwait (state of Kuwait), until 1961 a British
 protectorate, becoming independent on June 19,
 1961. An oil-rich and very small country, Kuwait
 continued to rely on external military guarantees
 after independence, at first from Great Britain and
 later from other countries in the
 ARAB LEAGUE.
 During the 
IRAN-IRAQ WAR Kuwait became an Iranian
 target, as it leaned toward Iraq, and ultimately
 accepted naval and air support from the United
 States.

Kwajalein, Battle of (January-February 1944), World
 War II movement of large U.S. naval forces into the
 Marshall Islands, in late January and early
 February 1944. U.S. Army and Marine forces made an
 amphibious assault on Kwajalein atoll on February
 1, while Marine units attacked other islands in the
 group; in a week Kwajalein had been taken and
 almost all of its 8,000 defenders killed when they
 refused to surrender. American casualties were
 under 1,500 men in all, including less than 400
 dead.

Kwangtung Army, the Japanese Manchurian army, which
 in 1931 manufactured the
 MUKDEN INCIDENT and then
 seized Manchuria without the prior approval of the
 Japanese government, which later ratified the
 action.

Ky, Nguyen Cao (1930- ), South Vietnamese officer
 and aviator, head of the armed forces group that
 seized power in 1965. He was prime minister of
 South Vietnam 1966-67 and vice-president 1967-71.


Kyshtym nuclear explosion (winter 1957-58), a
 massive explosion of buried nuclear wastes at a
 Soviet nuclear waste disposal site near Kyshtym in
 the Ural Mountains, creating a radioactive cloud
 that contaminated an estimated 400 square miles,
 killing and damaging an unknown number of people,
 though whole villages were later reported to have
 been destroyed. The event was reported outside the
 Soviet Union in 1976 but was not acknowledged by
 the Soviet government.

Labour Party, British moderate socialist party
 formally organized in 1906, succeeding the Labour
 Representation Committee, which was formed in
 February 1900 by several British socialist
 organizations, including the 
FABIAN SOCIETY, the
 Independent Labour party, and the trade union
 movement. The first Labour prime minister was
 Ramsay 
MACDONALD in 1924, and again in 1929. The
 party achieved full power with an overwheming
 victory in 1945, thereafter creating the 
NATIONAL

 HEALTH SERVICE, introducing other welfare reforms,
 nationalizing several basic industries, and
 beginning to dismantle the British Empire. It was
 the governing party under Harold 
WILSON and James
 
CALLAGHAN during several periods in the 1960s and
 1970s but encountered serious difficulties in the
 late 1970s and throughout the 1980s, because of a
 series of splits along ideological lines within the
 party.

laetrile, controversial drug manufactured from
 apricot pits, and touted as a treatment for
 
CANCER. Branded by the U.S. National Cancer
 Institute in 1981 as "ineffective" for that
 purpose, it was still used in Mexico and elsewhere.
 Desperate cancer victims sometimes traveled
 internationally to seek laetrile treatment.

La Follette, Robert Marion (1855-1925), U.S.
 lawyer, Wisconsin Republican congressman (1885-91),
 governor (1900-06), senator (1906-25), and
 presidential nominee of the 
PROGRESSIVE PARTY in
 1924. A reformer, his views often sharply varied
 from those of his party; after 1912 he sometimes
 broke party lines on reform matters, but could not
 support Woodrow 
WILSON on U.S. participation in
 World War I. In 1924, he was active in exposing the
 
TEAPOT DOME scandal. Although he received 5
 million votes in the 1924 elections, he won only
 his home state of Wisconsin, and his new party did
 not again seriously challenge the two major
 parties.

La Guardia, Fiorello Henry (1882-1947), U.S.
 consular official, interpreter at 
ELLIS ISLAND,
 and lawyer, who became a reform New York Republican
 congressman (1917-19, 1923-33). While a young
 consular official at Fiume, Italy (1903-06), he
 initiated medical inspections of emigrants
 departing for America, an innovation later adopted
 by many governments, saving thousands of poor
 immigrants from being turned back at 
ELLIS

 ISLAND; with treatment in Europe, many were later
 able to emigrate to the United States. In 1933 he
 became reform mayor of New York City on an
 antimachine, anticorruption fusion ticket, and
 during the next 12 years successfully and
 colorfully fought municipal corruption, developed
 social and public works programs, and became by far
 the best-loved mayor of his city. He was director
 of the 
UNITED NATIONS RELIEF AND REHABILITATION

 ADMINISTRATION (UNRRA) in 1946.

Lagunillas oil refinery fire (November 14, 1939), a
 fire that began in an oil refinery, then spread to
 the nearby town of Lagunillas, near Lake Maracaibo,
 Venezuela, destroying the town and killing more
 than 500 people.

Laika, first dog in space, launched into orbit in
 1957 aboard the U.S.S.R.'s Sputnik 2.

Laing, Ronald David (1927-1989), Scottish
 psychiatrist, who pioneered in the communal
 treatment of schizophrenic patients. In his Divided
 Self (1960), and The Politics of Experience (1967),
 he proposed that schizophrenia was an individual's
 defense against a society gone mad. He proposed
 that schizophrenic and other mentally disturbed
 people should live together in small, homelike,
 sheltered, and supervised communes. Though his
 theory of schizophrenia remained controversial, his
 success with communal living for the mentally ill,
 pioneered in London from 1965, led to its adoption
 in many countries, including the United States.

Lake Naroch, Battle of (March 18, 1916), an
 unsuccessful World War I Russian attack on German
 forces, resulting in approximately 100,000 Russian
 and 20,000 German casualties.

Lake Nios toxic cloud (August 21, 1986), a cloud of
 toxic gas rising from Lake Nios, Cameroon, a lake
 within a volcanic crater, that killed an estimated
 1,700 people and injured an estimated 500 more.

Lake Okeechobee flood (September 16-17, 1928),
 flood that killed an estimated 2,000-2,500 people,
 when a Caribbean hurricane struck this central
 Florida lake, causing it to flood surrounding
 low-lying areas.

Lame Duck Amendment, the 
TWENTIETH AMENDMENT to
 the U.S. Constitution, which moved the presidential
 and vice-presidential inauguration dates from March
 4 to January 20; it also provided for the new
 Congress to take office on January 3.

lamps are going out all over Europe, comment by
 Edward 
GREY, British foreign secretary at the
 beginning of World War I; from "the lamps are going
 out all over Europe; we shall not see them lit
 again in our lifetime."

Land, Edwin Herbert (1909- ), U.S. inventor, who in
 the early 1930s discovered how to use tiny crystals
 embedded in 
PLASTIC to polarize light, as in
 safety glass, founding the Polaroid Corporation in
 1937 to market his invention; the name became
 famous in 1947 when Land invented the Polaroid Land
 Camera, which produces photographs within the
 camera itself and turns out a print in seconds.

Landon, Alfred Mossman (1887-1987), U.S.
 businessman, Republican governor of Kansas 1933-36,
 and the Republican nominee for the presidency in
 1936. He was defeated by Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT, winnng only Maine and Vermont.

Landsteiner, Karl (1868-1943), Austrian-American
 pathologist and physiologist, who in 1900-02
 recognized that blood comes in various types; he
 labeled the main ones A, B, O, and AB. This
 discovery allowed blood transfusions to be made
 much more safely, and it won him the 1930 Nobel
 Prize for Physiology or Medicine. Some disastrous
 reactions still occurred, however, and in 1940,
 with Alexander S. Wiener, Landsteiner discovered
 that one cause was the 
RHESUS (RH) FACTOR.

Lange, David Russell (1942- ), New Zealand lawyer
 and socialist who became a Labour member of
 parliament in 1976, party leader in 1983, and prime
 minister in 1984. In 1985, he refused admission to
 a U.S. warship after demanding but not receiving
 certification that it was not carrying nuclear
 arms, and in 1987 he led in the parliament's
 decision to declare New Zealand waters a
 nuclear-free zone, developing a major dispute with
 the United States on the issue. In 1985 New Zealand
 arrested and convicted French agents who had sunk
 the Greenpeace antinuclear ship Rainbow Warrior in
 Auckland harbor, later releasing them after French
 payment of $7 million in compensation.

Lan P'ing, stage name of Chinese leader 
JIANG

 QING, the wife of 
MAO ZEDONG; in 1981 she was
 convicted of being the leader of the 
GANG OF

 FOUR.

L'Anse aux Meadows, Viking settlement in northern
 Newfoundland, dating to the 11th century 
A.D.,
 rediscovered in 1960 by Helge Ingstad and George
 Decker. Its discovery confirmed that Norse
 colonists had indeed reached and, at least for a
 time, had settled in North America.

Laos (Lao People's Democratic Republic), until 1953
 a French protectorate, which was granted some
 degree of autonomy by the French after World War
 II. Independence came on October 23, 1953, and was
 made firm by French withdrawal with the end of the
 
INDOCHINA WAR in 1954. After the 
PATHET LAO
 victory in the 
LAOTIAN CIVIL WAR came formal
 establishment of the People's Democratic Republic,
 on December 2, 1975.

Laotian Civil War (1950-73), a long insurrection by
 Communist 
PATHET LAO forces, supported by the
 
VIETMINH (later the government of Vietnam), the
 Soviet Union, and China. From 1950 to 1954 it was a
 low-level factional struggle set into the 
LAOTIAN

 WAR OF INDEPENDENCE against the French. After 1954
 it was a low-level continuing Pathet Lao
 insurgency, which burst into full-scale guerrilla
 civil war after the Kong Le military coup of 1960.
 Pathet Lao victories soon drew American threats to
 intervene. When an April 1961 cease-fire did not
 hold, there were U.S. naval movements toward the
 area, and American troops were sent to neighboring
 Thailand. In July 1962 an internationally mediated
 peace agreement reached in Geneva temporarily ended
 the war, with Prince 
SOUVANNA PHOUMA and Prince
 
SOUPHANOUVONG both serving in the 1960-62
 coalition government. War broke out again in 1962,
 side by side with the developing 
VIETNAM WAR.
 North Vietnam used Laotian supply routes and bases,
 and North Vietnamese troops fought beside Pathet
 Lao forces; the United States supplied the Laotian
 armed forces and in the 1970s provided air combat
 support. With American withdrawal from Vietnam,
 Pathet Lao victory became certain. A cease-fire
 went into effect in February 1973, followed by a
 coalition government and in May 1975 by Pathet Lao
 occupation of Vientiane. In December 1975 the
 Laotian People's Democratic Republic was formally
 established.

Largo Caballero, Francisco (1869-1946), Spanish
 socialist who became prime minister of the Spanish
 Republic in September 1936, 2 months after the
 outbreak of the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR. He resigned in
 May 1937 after the anarchist-Communist factional
 fighting in Barcelona.

La Rouche, Lyndon, Jr., a political extremist who
 had during his career veered both left and right,
 and a four-time right-wing presidential candidate.
 In December 1988 La Rouche and six associates were
 convicted of mail fraud and conspiracy relating to
 $30 million of "loans." He was sentenced to 15
 years imprisonment.

Lascaux, cave in France's Dordogne Valley,
 discovered in 1940 by four boys looking for a dog,
 that has some of the finest prehistoric paintings
 ever found, dating from about 16,000 years ago.
 They were closed to the public in 1963 after the
 paintings began to deteriorate, but photographs and
 copies, like those made by Abbe 
BREUIL, remain to
 record their magnificence.

laser (
Light 
Amplification by 
Stimulated
 
Emission of 
Radiation), device that produces an
 intense, concentrated beam of light, similar in
 concept to the 
MASER but with many more
 applications. As early as 1917, Albert 
EINSTEIN
 had seen that molecules stimulated in a certain way
 would emit light of a single color, but no
 practical action was taken until the 1950s, when
 several scientists in the U.S. and U.S.S.R.
 independently developed the idea of a laser. The
 first working laser was built in 1960 by U.S.
 physicist Theodore Harold Maiman. Since then lasers
 have been used in many ways: for high-resolution
 mapping, for 
HOLOGRAPHY, for industrial welding
 and cutting (even through diamonds), in
 long-distance fiber-optic networks, and in
 biological research. Probably their best-known uses
 have been in medicine: because they can be focused
 so accurately, lasers have been used for everything
 from cleaning out clogged arteries to welding
 together a damaged retina, from making an incision
 to sealing a leaking blood vessel.

Lateran Treaty (1929), agreement between the
 Vatican and the Italian government of Benito
 
MUSSOLINI by which the Vatican recognized
 Mussolini's government and the government
 recognized the sovereignty of the Vatican and the
 establishment of Catholicism as a state religion,
 superior to all other religions in Italy.

Lattimore, Owen (1900-89), U.S. scholar and author,
 expert on east and central Asia, editor of Pacific
 Affairs 1934-41, director of the Page School of
 International Relations at Johns Hopkins 1939-50,
 and U.S. diplomat in China during World War II. In
 1950 he was falsely accused of being a Soviet spy
 by Senator Joseph 
MCCARTHY, but was exonerated by
 a Senate committee. He detailed the experience in
 his book Ordeal by Slander (1950). In 1952 he was
 indicted for perjury; all charges against him were
 withdrawn in 1955.

Latvia, from the late 18th century, a Russian
 Baltic province, which won its freedom in the
 
LATVIAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1918-20), but was
 reoccupied by the Soviet Union in 1940, as provided
 in the 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT. During the 
GORBACHEV
 era, powerful independence movements arose in all
 three Baltic Soviet Republics; in early 1990, the
 issues had not yet been resolved.

Latvian War of Independence (1918-20), conflict
 that developed as part of the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR.
 Latvia declared its independence on November 18,
 1918; in response, Soviet troops entered the former
 Russian Baltic province and took Riga in January.
 Combined German and Latvian forces fought against
 the Soviets and each other until January 1920. The
 Germans left the country in November 1919, in
 accordance with the terms of the Treaty of
 
VERSAILLES, and the Russians left in January
 1920. Independence was formally recognized by the
 Treaty of 
RIGA in August 1920.

Laue, Max Theodor Felix von (1879-1960), German
 physicist who developed the technique of 
X-RAY

 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, in the process discovering in
 1912 that X-rays were a form of electromagnetic
 
RADIATION. He won the 1914 Nobel Prize for
 Physics.

Laurier, Wilfrid (1841-1919), Canadian lawyer, in
 parliament from 1874, who was Canada's first
 French-Canadian prime minister and was also Liberal
 party leader 1896-1911. He was an advocate of some
 separation of Canadian and British interests in
 world affairs and of multiethnic cooperation in
 Canada. He lost power in 1911 largely on the issue
 of the Canadian-U.S. reciprocity treaty, which
 brought Canada closer to the United States. He also
 lost Liberal party multiethnic unity in 1917 on the
 issue of conscription during World War I, which
 most French Canadians opposed and most British
 Canadians favored. His party returned to power 2
 years after his death, led by his protege, William
 Mackenzie 
KING.

Lausanne, Treaty of (July 24, 1923), the Turkish
 peace treaty following World War I. The Turks, led
 byrefused to accept the much more severe Treaty of
 
SEVRES, which had been signed by a Turkish
 delegation on August 10, 1920. At Sevres, Turkey
 had been dismembered, with much loss of territory
 to Greece and Italy; several new nations, including
 Armenia and eventually Kurdistan, had been created,
 and the Dardanelles had been internationalized. At
 Lausanne, the Turks kept much more of their
 territory, including Turkish Armenia and Turkish
 Kurdistan; by the terms of a separate Straits
 Convention they agreed to keep the Dardanelles open
 except in time of war, but kept control of the
 straits.

Laval, Pierre (1883-1945), French political leader,
 who was a socialist defense lawyer (1909) and
 member of the Chamber of Deputies 1914-19, leaving
 the Socialist Party after electoral defeat. He was
 a rightist French premier in 1931 and again in
 1935, in those years urging close cooperation with
 fascist Italy, and was out of office from 1936 to
 1940. As a member of 
PETAIN'S government in 1940,
 he was largely responsible for the establishment of
 the collaborationist 
VICHY government, though out
 of the government for a time in 1940-42. He then
 headed the Vichy government until the liberation of
 France, fled to Spain, and returned to France to
 stand trial for treason in 1945. He was convicted,
 and was executed on October 15, 1945.

Law, Andrew Bonar (1858-1923), a long-time British
 Conservative party leader (1911-21; 1922-23), who
 served at cabinet level in the 
ASQUITH and 
LLOYD

 GEORGE World War I governments, and was
 Conservative prime minister for 7 months in 1922
 and 1923.

Lawrence, Ernest Orlando (1901-58), U.S. physicist,
 who in 1928 developed the 
CYCLOTRON, using
 electromagnetic fields to accelerate atomic
 
PARTICLES, and won the 1939 Nobel Prize for
 Physics. With successively more powerful versions
 of this "atom smasher," at the University of
 California at Berkeley, Lawrence developed methods
 to separate out fissionable 
URANIUM and also to
 produce 
PLUTONIUM, both for use in early 
ATOMIC

 BOMBS. He identified and produced radioactive
 
ISOTOPES, many later used as tracers in medical
 and biological research, and laid the foundations
 for modern particle physics.

Lawrence, Thomas Edward "Lawrence of Arabia"
 (1888-1935), a British officer who became adviser
 to 
FAISAL during the 
ARAB REVOLT and
 Arab-British World War I alliance. He worked with
 Faisal to develop guerrilla strategy, participated
 in a successful attack on Aqaba, and organized
 consistent Arab raids on the vital Hejaz railway.
 Press coverage made him an almost mythical figure.
 In the early 1920s he was a British political
 adviser in the Middle East, but disillusion soon
 caused him to retire from his work in that area.
 His book, The Seven Pillars of Wisdom, on his
 desert years with the Arabs, was published in 1926.


Lawrence of Arabia popular name for Thomas Edward
 (T. E.) 
LAWRENCE.

Lawrence textile strike (1912), a successful strike
 by an estimated 20,000 textile workers in Lawrence,
 Massachusetts, most of them recent immigrants. The
 strike, which was led by the 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF

 THE WORLD (IWW), gained widespread labor and
 liberal support and provided the IWW with a
 temporary surge of acceptance and growth.

League of Arab States an alternate name for the
 
ARAB LEAGUE.

League of Nations (1920-46), the international
 peacekeeping and collective security organization
 called for in U.S. president Woodrow 
WILSON'S

 FOURTEEN POINTS, which was established by the
 
PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE in 1919 and acknowledged
 in the Treaty of 
VERSAILLES and other treaties
 following World War I. Its enabling document was
 the 
COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS; 63 nations
 signed that Covenant during the life of the
 organization; the United States did not. During the
 1930s there were key withdrawals of fascist
 nations, including the Japanese withdrawal after
 the League had condemned Japan's invasion of
 Manchuria and withdrawals by Germany and Italy.
 From 1920 to 1922, the League set up supervision by
 other countries of former German and Turkish
 territories, such as the British mandate in
 Palestine and the Japanese mandates over several
 Pacific island groups, and was theoretically
 responsible for supervision of those mandates; in
 fact, it had little to do with them once
 established. The League also included the
 
INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION and the
 Permanent Court of International Justice, which in
 1945 became the 
WORLD COURT; both were, in
 practice, separate organizations. Throughout its
 life, the League attempted to promote international
 peace and disarmament, and did play a significant
 role in the settlement of some small disputes. But
 it had very little effect on the course of major
 events; by the mid-1930s it was clear the that
 major powers had entirely bypassed the League, and
 were heading for war.

Leakey, Louis Seymour Bazett (1903-72), Mary Douglas
 Nicol Leakey (1913- ), and Richard Erskine Frere
 Leakey (1944- ), British anthropologists and
 paleontologists, husband and wife, and the middle
 of their three sons, who did key work at Olduvai
 Gorge, in Tanzania, and at other East African
 locations. Beginning in 1959, Mary and Louis Leakey
 discovered hominid remains as much as 2 million
 years old, indicating that humanity's beginnings
 were far earlier than had previously been thought.
 They also encouraged the work of primatologists,
 notably Jane 
GOODALL and Dian 
FOSSEY. Mary
 Leakey, continuing to work in East Africa after her
 husband's death in 1972, made further discoveries
 indicating the possibility of even earlier origins.
 From 1968, Richard Leakey did similar work in
 Kenya, writing popular works about anthropology,
 and sometimes coming into conflict with Donald
 
JOHANSON over interpretation of fossil finds.

Lebanese Civil War of 1958, conflict that began in
 May, with rebellion against the pro-Western
 government of Camille 
CHAMOUN by a coalition of
 Pan-Arab and Christian Left forces. By June, there
 was factional streetfighting in Beirut. Chamoun
 appealed for Western help; on July 15 the United
 States sent marine and army units, which grew to a
 force of over 14,000. The insurrection ended with a
 compromise peace settlement, with Chamoun agreeing
 not to run for the presidency after the end of his
 term in 1958. All U.S. troops were withdrawn by
 late October.

Lebanese Wars (1975- ), conflict that began in
 earnest in 1975, after the progressive
 destabilization of Lebanon from 1967, with
 increased Palestinian commando activity in southern
 Lebanon, and the beginning of Israeli armed
 response across the Lebanese border. In 1971 Jordan
 expelled the 
PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION

 (PLO); Yasir 
ARAFAT then moved PLO headquarters
 to Lebanon, and both guerrilla activity and Israeli
 response increased dramatically. In April 1975,
 heavy fighting between 
PHALANGE Christian militia
 and PLO forces began in Beirut, and soon drew in
 other Christian and Moslem militias, becoming a
 full-scale civil war in 1975-76. Direct Syrian army
 intervention began in April 1976, and a cease-fire,
 to be enforced by a joint Arab states force, which
 became in fact a Syrian force, went into effect in
 October and November. However, heavy fighting
 continued in the south, sporadic fighting continued
 throughout the country, and PLO forces continued to
 raid across the Israeli border. In March 1978
 Israeli forces invaded southern Lebanon,
 withdrawing in June after formation of a Christian
 Lebanese buffer zone abutting the Israeli border.
 In the same period, factional fighting broke out
 throughout the country, which continued, with
 scores of militias in fluid, ever-changing
 alliances engaged in a civil war without fixed
 boundaries or fronts. This factional fighing
 destroyed much of Beirut and an estimated 80% of
 the country's industrial capacity, cost tens of
 thousands of dead, and left hundreds of thousands
 homeless. In June 1982, the Israelis invaded
 Lebanon, quickly drove to Beirut, drove Syrian
 forces into the Bekaa valley, and encircled and
 besieged PLO and Syrian forces in West Beirut. In
 August, negotiations mediated by the United States
 led to PLO and Syrian withdrawal from Beirut, under
 the protection of a multinational peacekeeping
 force, which then left Beirut, returned in
 September, and remained in Beirut until early 1984.
 The Israelis withdrew from Beirut in 1983 and from
 southern Lebanon in 1985, though still maintaining
 a Christian-dominated buffer zone on their border.
 Their position in Lebanon and international
 standing were severely damaged by their probable
 complicity in the Phalangist massacres of September
 1982, at Beirut's 
SABRA AND CHATILLA Palestinian
 refugee camps. The civil war continued: In
 September and October 1983 U.S. marine and naval
 forces at Beirut were drawn into fighting between
 the Druse militia and Lebanese army forces. In
 October 1983 the remaining PLO forces in Lebanon
 were besieged by Syrian-backed Lebanese forces at
 Tripoli, and were evacuated by sea. From 1983 rival
 militias fought for control of small areas of
 Beirut, of the Palestinian refugee camps, of
 Tripoli, of southern Lebanon, and of the Chouf
 mountains north of Beirut, while support and
 intervention from abroad continued to help fuel the
 fire that consumed the country. In the spring of
 1989, the war intensified, as the Lebanese army,
 led by General Michel Aoun, attempted to expel
 Syrian forces. Beirut was reduced to rubble, and an
 estimated 1 million more refugees left the city. A
 truce was effected in late September, and on
 November 5 Rene Moawad was elected president by the
 Lebanese parliament, after an agreement had been
 reached by some Moslem and Christian factions. But
 hardline Christian and Moslem forces did not accept
 the new government; Maowad was assassinated on
 November 22, replaced by another moderate, and the
 civil war went on, with no end in sight.

Lebanon (Republic of Lebanon), until 1918 part of
 the Ottoman Empire. During the interwar period
 Lebanon was a French-administered 
LEAGUE OF

 NATIONS mandate territory. Formation of an
 independent republic was announced on November 26,
 1941, but actual independence was achieved upon
 French withdrawal in 1946. After independence, with
 governments carefully balanced between Christians
 and Moslems, Lebanon became a prosperous Middle
 Eastern financial and resort center. In the
 mid-1950s, existing balances began to break down, a
 process resulting in the civil war of 1958. In the
 mid-1960s, Lebanon began to be drawn into the
 ongoing Arab-Israeli conflict; in 1975, the long,
 disastrous 
LEBANESE WARS began.

Lebanon hostages, scores of people who from early
 1984 were kidnapped, some murdered and most held as
 possible bargaining counters, by Moslem extremist
 groups in Lebanon. The hostages included British
 Anglican church hostage negotiator Terry Waite,
 kidnapped January 20, 1987, and the following
 Americans, in the order in which they were
 kidnapped: Jeremy 
LEVIN, CNN bureau chief, taken
 March 7, 1984, escaped February 14, 1986; William
 
BUCKLEY, CIA station chief in Beirut, taken March
 16, 1984, murdered during 1985; Rev. Benjamin
 
WEIR, taken May 6, 1984, released September 14,
 1985; Peter 
KILBURN, American University
 librarian, taken December 3, 1984, murdered April
 17, 1986; Rev. Martin 
JENCO, head of Catholic
 Relief Services, taken January 8, 1985, released
 July 26, 1986; Terry 
ANDERSON, Associated Press
 Middle East correspondent, taken March 15, 1985;
 David 
JACOBSEN, director of American University,
 taken May 28, 1985, released November 2, 1986;
 Thomas 
SUTHERLAND, American University
 agriculture dean, taken June 9, 1985; Frank 
REED,
 director of the Lebanese International School,
 taken September 9, 1986; Joseph James 
CICIPPIO,
 American University comptroller, taken September
 12, 1986; Edward Austin 
TRACY, writer, taken
 October 21, 1986; Charles 
GLASS, ABC-TV news
 correspondent, taken June 17, 1987, escaped August
 18, 1987; Robert 
POLHILL, American University
 professor, taken January 24, 1988; Alann 
STEEN,
 American University professor, taken January 24,
 1988; Jesse 
TURNER, American University
 professor, taken January 24, 1988; Mithileshwar
 
SINGH, American University professor, taken
 January 24, 1988, released October 3, 1988; William
 
HIGGINS, UNITED NATIONS truce supervision team
 head and U.S. lieutenant colonel, taken February
 17, 1988. During the late 1980s hostage release
 negotiations proceeded in several countries,
 including Great Britain, Germany, and the United
 States, in the United States greatly contributing
 to the development of the 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR.
 Higgins was murdered by his captors on or before
 July 31, 1989. They announced the murder on July
 31, after Sheikh Abdul Karim Obeid had been
 abducted by Israeli commandos on July 18, but
 
HIGGINS may have been murdered earlier. They did
 not carry out their announced intention to murder
 Cicippio and negotiations continued.

lebensraum (living space), the Nazi slogan and
 justification for the invasion of its eastern
 neighbors, allegedly in search of land and
 resources for Germany's farmers and industrial
 machine.

Le Cateau, Battle of (August 26-27, 1914),
 engagement after the World War I Battles of the
 
FRONTIERS, in which British forces falling back
 before German armies sweeping south and west
 through Belgium made a stand, but after a daylong
 battle could not hold their positions and resumed
 their retreat.

Leclerc, Jacques Philippe (1902-47), French general
 who saw service in Africa during the interwar
 period, was wounded and captured during the Battle
 of 
FRANCE, and escaped to join the 
FREE FRENCH
 in London. In 1942 he led Free French forces in
 Central Africa; his forces then crossed the Sahara
 to join Allied forces in North Africa. His Second
 Armored Division fought in the invasion of
 
NORMANDY; at its head, he entered Paris to take
 the German surrender of the city.

Lee, Jennie (1904-1988), British socialist and
 Labour party leader, who became the youngest member
 of parliament at the age of 24; she was in
 parliament 1928-31 and 1945-70. Throughout the
 post-World War II period, and until his death in
 1960, she and her husband, Aneurin 
BEVAN, were
 major figures on the left in the Labour party. In
 1964 she became arts minister and in 1967
 chairperson of her party.

Legionnaire's disease (Legionellosis), dangerous
 type of pneumonia first discovered when over 180
 American Legion members contracted it while
 attending a July 1976 convention in Philadelphia;
 29 of them died. Researchers later identified the
 bacillus (Legionella pneumophilia) that caused
 Legionnaire's disease and-through analysis of
 stored samples from previous mysterious
 outbreaks-found that it had been around for decades
 at least, often harbored in ventilation systems or
 water tanks.

Lehi, an alternate name for the terrorist 
STERN

 GANG.

Lehman, Herbert Henry (1878-1963), U.S. investment
 banker, a liberal Democrat, and lieutenant governor
 of New York 1929-33; in 1933 he succeeded Franklin
 Delano 
ROOSEVELT as New York's governor, serving
 four terms. As governor, he introduced a series of
 reforms and public works much like those of
 Roosevelt's 
NEW DEAL, and he strongly supported
 Roosevelt through the years of depression and war.
 In 1943 he became first director of the 
UNITED

 NATIONS RELIEF AND REHABILITATION ADMINISTRATION

 (UNRRA). He was a senator from New York 1949-56,
 throughout the 
MCCARTHY period, and was one of
 the few in the Senate who consistently opposed
 McCarthy and his witchhunting colleagues. After his
 retirement he joined Eleanor 
ROOSEVELT and other
 New York reformers in finally breaking the power of
 the New York City Tammany machine.

Lemaitre, Georges Edouard (1894-1966), Belgian
 priest and astronomer who first suggested the 
BIG

 BANG THEORY of the universe's origin in 1927.

Lend-Lease, a World War II aid program authorized
 by the U.S. Lend-Lease Act of 1941, by which
 President 
ROOSEVELT was enabled to supply huge
 amounts of war materials to the 
ALLIES, first to
 Britain and then to the Soviet Union and scores of
 other allied countries.

Lenin, Vladimir Illich (Vladimir Illich Ulyanov;
 1870-1924), chief organizer, theoretician, and
 leader of the 
BOLSHEVIK party and of the 
OCTOBER

 REVOLUTION of 1917, and head of the Soviet Union
 through the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR and the early years
 of Soviet power; therefore, the father of the
 Russian Revolution and of the Soviet Union.
 Simultaneously, he was the leading theoretician and
 organizer of the world Communist movement in the
 20th century and the founder of the 
COMMUNIST

 INTERNATIONAL. His brother, Alexander Ulyanov, was
 executed for plotting to assassinate the czar in
 1887. Lenin became a Marxist while still a student,
 became an active member of the Russian
 Social-Democratic Party in 1895, and was exiled to
 Siberia from 1895 to 1900, in this period beginning
 to produce theoretical work. In 1903 he split with
 the majority of his party, forming its 
BOLSHEVIK
 wing. From 1907 to 1917 he led the Bolsheviks from
 abroad, in 1912 leading in the formation of the
 Russian Social-Democratic Party (Bolshevik). He
 opposed Russian participation in World War I, and
 in April 1917 returned from abroad, passing through
 German-held territory with a safe-conduct from
 German authorities eager to help him take Russia
 out of the war. Once again in Russia, he quickly
 built his party, tried and failed to set off a
 revolution in July, and went into hiding; but by
 November 7 he was able to lead the Bolsheviks to
 power. From then until his death in 1924 he ruled
 his country, through the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR and
 the 
NEW ECONOMIC POLICY, and led the world
 Communist movement as well. He was physically
 weakened by wounds suffered during an assassination
 attempt in 1918, and from May 1922 was beset by a
 series of major illnesses.

Leningrad, Siege of (September 1941-January 1944),
 World War II siege of the Russian city and its 2.5
 million people, beginning September 8, 1941. From
 then until relief of the city in 1944 only very
 small quantities of supplies reached the city
 across Lake Ladoga. Estimates of loss of life
 within Leningrad during the period vary widely;
 probably 750,000-l,000,000 died during the seige,
 in prolonged trench and blockhouse combat, and of
 illness and famine.

Lennon murder (December 8, 1980), the killing of
 former 
BEATLE John Lennon outside his home in New
 York City, by deranged Mark David Chapman.

Leonov, Aleksei Archipovich (1934- ), U.S.S.R.
 cosmonaut who made the first 
SPACE WALK while on
 the Voskhod 2 flight in March 1965.

Leopold and Loeb, 19-year-old Nathan Leopold and
 18-year-old Richard Loeb, Chicago children of
 privilege and "thrill killers," who on May 22,
 1924, murdered 14-year-old Robert Franks in
 Chicago. They were saved from execution by Clarence
 
DARROW, who made a pioneering insanity plea on
 their behalf. Loeb was murdered in prison; Leopold
 was ultimately paroled in 1958.

Lesotho (Kingdom of Lesotho), until 1966
 Basutoland, a Basotho (Basuto) enclave and British
 protectorate surrounded by South African territory.
 Independence and 
COMMONWEALTH membership came on
 October 4, 1966.

Let a hundred flowers bloom, and a hundred schools
 of thought contend, the 
MAO ZEDONG quotation
 that generated the short-lived 
HUNDRED FLOWERS

 CAMPAIGN of 1956-57.

Letelier assassination (September 21, 1976), the
 Washington, DC murder of Orlando Letelier del
 Solar, a former official in Chile's 
ALLENDE
 government and a prominent opponent of General
 Augusto 
PINOCHET'S military dictatorship. It was
 widely thought to have been the work of Chilean
 agents. A sharp break in U.S.-Chilean relations
 followed Chilean refusal to extradite the former
 head of the Chilean secret police and two other
 officers, all charged in the case, and refusal even
 to investigate the charges in Chile.

Levesque, Rene (1922-87), Canadian journalist and
 newscaster who became leader of the 
QUEBEC

 SEPARATIST MOVEMENT. He entered the Quebec
 parliament in 1960 as a Liberal, was a founder of
 the 
PARTI QUEBECOIS in 1968, and was Quebec
 premier 1976-85. He left his party and premiership
 when his party, having failed to win majority
 support for separation from Canada, formally gave
 up separatism, as least as a current goal.

Levin, Jeremy, one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, CNN bureau chief, who was kidnapped on
 March 7, 1984, and escaped on February 14, 1986.

Levi-Strauss, Claude Gustave (1908- ), French
 anthropologist, who applied the principles of
 
STRUCTURALISM to the study of preindustrial or
 "primitive" societies, postulating a single
 universal set of understandable principles
 governing the development of human behavior and
 societies. He has been variously described as a
 structural anthropologist, social anthropologist,
 and philosopher-anthropologist.

Lewis, John Llewellyn (1880-1969), U.S. coal miner
 who became a local and then a national leader of
 the United Mine Workers (UMW) and the 
AMERICAN

 FEDERATION OF LABOR (AFL), and who in 1920 became
 president of the UMW. In 1935 he was a founder of
 the Committee for Industrial Organization, a group
 of AFL unions determined to organize industrial
 unions, including the unskilled. Expelled by the
 AFL, these unions formed the 
CONGRESS OF

 INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (CIO); Lewis was its
 first president, and its leader in the massive and
 successful organizing efforts of the late 1930s.
 Lewis broke with Franklin 
ROOSEVELT in 1940, and
 with the CIO in 1942; he and his union remained
 independent thereafter, except for a brief
 reaffiliation with the AFL in 1946-47. He led his
 union in a series of major strikes during World War
 II and in the early postwar period. He survived a
 postwar mine seizure by the federal government that
 ended one strike, two federal injunctions, contempt
 of court citations, and large resulting fines,
 winning massive pay increases and pension and
 welfare benefits for his members. He stayed on to
 administer those benefits after his retirement in
 1960.

Ley, Robert (1890-1945), head of the Nazi German
 Labor Front; he committed suicide in prison while
 awaiting trial for war crimes in 1945.

Leyte, Battle of (October-December 1944), major
 World War II U.S. landings on the Pacific island of
 Leyte, beginning October 22, 1944, against light
 resistance; at the end of the first day more than
 100,000 men were ashore and beginning to move
 inland. In late October and early December,
 reinforced Japanese forces impeded the American
 advance, but by late December the island had been
 taken.

Leyte Gulf, Battle of (October 24-25, 1944), the
 largest naval battle of the Pacific in World War
 II, occurring side by side with the American
 invasion of 
LEYTE, the first step in the
 liberation of the Philippines. On October 24 the
 main remaining forces of the Japanese navy attacked
 huge U.S. naval concentrations in Leyte Gulf. A
 series of connected engagements followed, in which
 the Japanese lost 4 aircraft carriers, an estimated
 500 airplanes, 3 battleships, and many other
 vessels, effectively crippling the Japanese navy
 for the balance of the war. American losses were
 relatively light, in no way damaging the capability
 of the U.S. Navy.

Liaquat, Ali Khan (1895-1951), Indian Moslem lawyer
 who became active in the 
MOSLEM LEAGUE in the
 early 1920s, becoming a powerful figure as the
 League developed into the main Moslem Indian
 independence organization. He became first prime
 minister of Pakistan in 1947, remaining in that
 post until his assassination in October 1951.

Libby, Willard Frank (1908-80), U.S. chemist, who
 in 1947 developed the technique of 
RADIOCARBON

 DATING, for which he won the 1960 Nobel Prize in
 Chemistry. During World War II he had worked on the
 
MANHATTAN PROJECT, at Columbia University helping
 to develop a gaseous method for isolating
 fissionable 
URANIUM ISOTOPES for the 
ATOMIC

 BOMB, later serving on the 
ATOMIC ENERGY

 COMMISSION (1954-59).

Liberal party, in Britain in the 19th century, the
 mildly reformist party of Russell, Palmerston, and
 Gladstone; in the early 20th century, the party of
 
ASQUITH and 
LLOYD GEORGE, whose long feud
 enormously damaged the party. Thereafter it was a
 steadily diminishing force in British politics.

Liberty Bell 7, U.S. 
MERCURY spacecraft that put
 the second American into space, flown on a
 suborbital flight on July 21, 1961, by Virgil (Gus)
 
GRISSOM.

Libya (Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya),
 until 1912 part of the Ottoman Empire, then
 becoming an Italian colony until the end of World
 War II. Independence came on December 24, 1951,
 with the establishment of a monarchy; on September
 1, 1969, Muammar al-
QADDAFI took power in a
 military coup, announcing the formation of a
 republic, in actuality a one-party state.

Lidice (Czechoslovakia), site of a German atrocity
 during World War II. On June 10, 1942, the village
 was destroyed, and its 1200 people were murdered by
 the 
GESTAPO in reprisal for the assassination of
 Gestapo chief Reinhard 
HEYDRICH. After the war
 the village became a Czech national shrine.

Lie, Trygve Halvdan (1896-1968), Norwegian lawyer
 and government official who headed the Norwegian
 delegation to the founding 
SAN FRANCISCO

 CONFERENCE of the 
UNITED NATIONS, and was first
 secretary-general of the UN 1946-53. During his
 tenure, he faced a series of major postwar crises,
 including the Israeli independence movement and the
 beginning of the long series of Arab-Israeli
 conflicts, the partition of India and the conflicts
 that followed, a crisis in Iran, and the war in
 Korea, with its UN participation on the side of
 South Korea. In 1953 he resigned because of
 determined Soviet opposition to continuing tenure,
 returning to Norway.

Liebknecht, Karl (1871-1919), leading young
 socialist before World War I, who strongly opposed
 that war and was imprisoned 1916-18 for his
 opposition. The son of German Socialist Wilhelm
 Liebknecht, he was a founder of the Sparticist
 League and on his release in 1918 was a founder of
 the Communist party of Germany. He and Rosa
 
LUXEMBURG led the armed 
SPARTACIST revolt of
 January 1919, were captured after failure of the
 revolt, and were murdered by right-wing 
FREIKORPS
 troops on January 15, 1919.

Liege, Belgian fortress that fell to the Germans on
 August 16, 1914, in their first victory of World
 War I.

Ligachev, Yegor Kuzmich (1920- ), Soviet engineer
 and Communist party official, who became a member
 of his party's Central Committee in 1976, its
 secretariat in 1983, and its Politburo in 1985, at
 the beginning of the 
GORBACHEV era. A
 conservative, he was until mid-1988 sharply
 critical of Gorbachev's reform program and a
 potential competitor for national leadership. He
 lost strength in 1988, and was sidetracked within
 the Politburo.

Likud (Unity Party), Israeli hard-line nationalist
 party formed in 1973, which came to power under the
 leadership of Menachim 
BEGIN in 1977; Begin was
 succeeded by Yitzhak 
SHAMIR in 1983.

Li Li-san (1896-1967), early Chinese Communist
 leader who was in 1928 leader of the 
COMMUNIST

 PARTY OF CHINA, but whose Soviet-directed policies
 resulted in the unsuccessful attempt to take
 
CH'ANG-SHA and other central Chinese cities in
 1930 and the subsequent flight into the mountains
 of western Kiangsi. He was sent to the Soviet Union
 in 1930, staying there until 1945 and then
 returning to China.

Limits of Growth, The, 1972 report, prepared by
 Dennis L. Meadows of the Massachusetts Institute of
 Technology for the Club of Rome, that warned of the
 dangers of unchecked economic expansion, waste,
 pollution, and population growth. Using computer
 modeling, the report developed a cautionary
 scenario in which rapidly increasing industrial
 expansion and rising population could deplete
 natural resources, leading to a disastrous decline
 in ability to provide food and services for the
 world's population.

Lin Biao (1907-71), Chinese Communist soldier who
 led Red troops throughout the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR
 and the 
SINO-JAPAN- ESE WAR, and was in the final
 years of the civil war Communist army commander in
 Manchuria. In the late 1950s and 1960s, from 1959
 as minister of defense, he was closely associated
 with 
MAO ZEDONG's 
CULTURAL REVOLUTION, and as
 vice-chairman of the Communist party in 1969 he was
 Mao's heir apparent. He died in a 1971 plane crash;
 the Chinese government later stated that he had
 been fleeing China after an unsuccessful attempt to
 take power.

Lindbergh, Charles Augustus (1902-74), U.S.
 aviator, who on May 20-21, 1927, made the first
 solo flight across the Atlantic, from New York to
 Paris, in his airplane The Spirit of St. Louis,
 instantly becoming one of the major celebrities of
 the century. In 1932, the kidnapping and murder of
 his and Anne Morrow Lindbergh's 20-month-old son,
 Charles, Jr., for which Bruno 
HAUPTMANN was
 convicted, provided unwanted celebrity of a
 different kind. In 1936, with Alexis 
CARREL, he
 developed a pump, popularly called the Lindbergh
 machine, to supply blood to organs, keeping them
 alive outside the body; this laid the groundwork
 for 
OPEN-HEART SURGERY, organ 
TRANSPLANTS, and
 
ARTIFICIAL HEARTS. During the 1930s, Lindbergh
 publicly expressed sympathy for the Nazi government
 of Germany and received a Nazi medal in 1938. In
 1939 he became a leading spokesman for the
 isolationist 
AMERICA FIRST COMMITTEE, and was
 attacked for his pro-Nazi and anti-Semitic speeches
 by President Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT and others.
 After the United States entered World War II,
 however, he fully supported the war effort, flying
 in combat.

Lindbergh kidnapping, the taking of 20-month-old
 Charles A. Lindbergh, Jr., from his home in
 Hopewell, New Jersey, on March 1, 1932. The
 kidnapper left a note demanding a ransom of
 $50,000, which was paid. Yet the kidnapper murdered
 the child; the body was found on May 12. Bruno
 Richard 
HAUPTMANN was convicted of the murder and
 was executed on April 3, 1936. From beginning to
 end, and long after, the case generated enormous
 worldwide publicity. It also generated the
 Lindbergh Law, in June 1932, which makes the
 transport of a kidnapped person across state lines
 a federal offense, thereby justifying the
 intervention of the Federal Bureau of
 Investigation.

linear accelerator, type of 
ACCELERATOR, in
 contrast to a circular accelerator, or 
CYCLOTRON.


L'Innovation department store fire (May 22, 1967),
 a massive fire that destroyed L'Innovation
 department store in Brussels, Belgium, killing 322
 people.

Lin Piao, the old-style name of Chinese leader 
LIN

 BIAO.

Lion of Kashmir, the popular name for Sheikh
 Mohammad Abdullah, Kashmiri independence leader.

Li Peng (1928- ), Chinese political leader, from
 childhood a protege of 
ZHOU ENLAI; he rose slowly
 and steadily thr ough the Chinese party bureaucracy
 until reaching cabinet level as vice-minister of
 power in 1979, then becoming power minister in
 1981. He became a Politburo member in 1985 and
 succeeded 
ZHAO ZIYANG as prime minister in 1987,
 Zhao remaining head of the Communist party. In the
 late 1980s, he emerged as a leader of the
 conservative wing of Chinese communism, defeating
 Zhao Ziyang and the liberal wing of his party in
 the spring of 1989, during the crisis generated by
 the 
CHINESE STUDENT DEMONSTRATIONS OF 1989.

Lippman, Walter (1889-1974), U.S. journalist,
 editor, writer, and political philosopher, who
 became a highly influential political analyst and
 widely read columnist through his syndicated "Today
 and Tomorrow" column in the New York Herald Tribune
 (1931-67), and through his many books. An
 independent, he strongly supported and was an
 adviser to Woodrow 
WILSON during and after World
 War I. He later criticized many 
NEW DEAL programs
 and opposed 
MCCARTHYISM, and the wars in Korea
 and Vietnam.

Li Ta-chao (1888-1927), Peking University librarian
 and Marxist theoretician who became, with 
CH'EN

 TU-HSIU, co-founder of the 
COMMUNIST PARTY OF

 CHINA and who deeply influenced the thinking of
 
MAO ZEDONG and other Chinese Communist leaders.
 He was killed by order of warlord 
CHANG TSO-LIN
 after being taken from the Soviet embassy in
 Peking.

Lithuania, from the late 18th century, split
 between Russia and Prussia, the major portion of
 the country becoming a Russian Baltic province.
 Lithuania won its freedom in the 
LITHUANIAN WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE (1918-20), but was reoccupied by the
 Soviet Union in 1940, as provided in the
 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT. During the 
GORBACHEV era,
 powerful independence movements arose in all three
 Baltic Soviet Republics; in early 1990, the issues
 had not yet been resolved.

Lithuanian War of Independence (1918-20), conflict
 that developed as part of the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR
 and the 
SOVIET-POLISH WAR. Lithuania declared its
 independence on February 16, 1918; in response
 Soviet troops entered the former Russian Baltic
 province but were expelled by the occupying German
 army. After the World War I armistice German troops
 withdrew, and Soviet troops reentered the country;
 in January they occupyied Vilna, claimed by Poland,
 which drew Poland into the war. Independence was
 formally recognized by the Treaty of Moscow in July
 1920.

Little Entente, a mutual assistance alliance, from
 1920 through the mid-1930s, among Yugoslavia,
 Czechoslovakia, and Rumania, informally affiliated
 with France. After 
HITLER'S accession to power in
 Germany the entente weakened, as Yugoslavia and
 Rumania sought accommodation with Germany and
 Italy. The alliance failed completely in 1937, when
 Yugoslavia and Rumania refused to support
 Czechoslovakia against German aggression.

Little Steel Massacre (Memorial Day Massacre), the
 killing of 10 striking steelworkers by Chicago
 police on Memorial Day 1937, during the Little
 Steel strike of that year. Although United States
 Steel and several other major steel companies had
 recognized the steelworkers' union earlier in the
 year, Republic Steel and several smaller companies
 did not; they defeated the union in the resulting
 strike, thereby successfully resisting organization
 until 1941.

Litvinov, Maksim Maksimovich (1876-1951), Soviet
 diplomat, an old 
BOLSHEVIK who was first Soviet
 representative to Great Britain, and became foreign
 minister in 1930. Throughout the 1930s, he tried to
 develop collective security agreements against the
 growing threat of Nazi Germany. He was dismissed in
 1939, possibly because he was Jewish and the
 Soviets were in the process of concluding the
 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT. He was reactivated during World
 II, and was Soviet ambassador to the United States
 from 1941 to 1943.

Liu Shao-chi, the old-style name of Chinese leader
 
LIU SHAOQI.

Liu Shaoqi (Liu Shao-chi; 1899-1969), leading
 Chinese Communist theoretician who became chairman
 of the 
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA in 1959 and was
 therefore 
MAO ZEDONG's heir apparent. However, he
 was attacked by Mao's followers during the
 
CULTURAL REVOLUTION, lost all of his official
 positions in 1968, and died in prison a year later.
 He was posthumously rehabilitated during the 
DENG
 era.

Liuzzo, Viola Gregg, Detroit civil rights activist
 shot and killed in Selma, Alabama, on March 25,
 1965, while participating in a voter registration
 drive. Three 
KU KLUX KLAN members were later
 imprisoned for conspiring in her murder.

Live Aid, the July 13, 1985, telethon for African
 relief, with marathon concerts in London and New
 York. It had been preceded by a 6-month campaign
 for African relief that began with the writing and
 taping of the Michael Jackson/Lionel Ritchie song
 "We Are the World," which became a best-seller. All
 profits went to the relief fund, including those
 from a record album and from the concerts, which
 were seen by more than one billion people
 throughout the world.

Lleras Camargo, Alberto (1906- ), Colombian
 political leader, twice president of Colombia
 (1945-46; 1958-62), who in his second presidency
 finally ended 
LA VIOLENCIA with an imaginative
 Liberal-Conservative alternate presidency
 agreement. He was the first secretary-general of
 the 
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES (OAS)
 1948-54.

Lloyd George, David (1863-1945), British solicitor
 and Welsh Liberal party leader, in Parliament
 1890-1945, who served in several cabinet-level
 posts before and during the early years of World
 War I and became wartime coalition prime minister
 in 1916. As prime minister, he played a major role
 in winning the war, at the 
PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE
 of 1919, and in 1921 negotiations to end the 
IRISH

 WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.

Locarno, Treaty of (October 5-16, 1925), a group of
 related treaties signed by France, Great Britain,
 Germany, and several other European countries,
 guaranteeing that German borders with Belgum and
 France would remain as set by the Treaty of
 
VERSAILLES, and pledging continued
 demilitarization of the 
RHINELAND. The Locarno
 treaties were abrogated by Germany on reoccupation
 of the Rhineland in 1936.

LOCHNER v. New York (1905), a landmark U.S. Supreme
 Court decision invalidating a New York law that
 limited bakers' to a 10-hour day and a 60-hour
 week, as a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's
 federal guarantee of freedom of contract.

Lockerbie aircraft bombing (December 21, 1988),
 detonation of an explosive device aboard a Pan Am
 747 jet bound for the United States, killing all
 259 people aboard. The plane's remnants fell on the
 town of Lockerbie, Scotland, killing at least 11
 others on the ground. Islamic extremists claimed
 "credit" for the action.

Lockheed scandal, the 1975 international scandal
 that broke when a congressional investigation
 revealed that the U.S. Lockheed Corporation had,
 for at least 17 years, been routinely and massively
 bribing influential figures in many countries to
 gain their support for aircraft purchases. Although
 the investigation was widely publicized in the
 United States, no indictments resulted. Massive
 scandals did result in several other countries, the
 most notable leading to the forced resignation and
 later conviction of Japanese prime minister Kakuei
 Tanaka.

Lodge, Henry Cabot (1850-1924), U.S. diplomat,
 political leader, and author, a Massachusetts
 Republican congressman (1887-93) and senator
 (1893-1924). Lodge was a conservative who favored
 American entry into World War I, while opposing the
 domestic reforms and international policies of the
 
WILSON administration. After World War I he
 successfully led the opposition to U.S. membership
 in the 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS, and played a major role
 in the nomination of Warren G. 
HARDING and the
 defeat of Woodrow Wilson in 1920.

Lodge, Henry Cabot (1902-85), U.S. political
 leader, the grandson of Senator Henry Cabot
 
LODGE. He was a Massachusetts Republican senator
 (1937-43; 1947-53), losing his seat to John F.
 
KENNEDY. He was U.S. ambassador to the 
UNITED

 NATIONS (1953-60), and in 1960 was unsuccessful
 Republican vice-presidential candidate on the
 
NIXON ticket. He became ambassador to South
 Vietnam in 1963, left to try unsuccessfully for the
 Republican presidential nomination in 1964, became
 South Vietnam ambassador again (1965-67),
 ambassador to the Federal Republic of Germany in
 1968, and chief Vietnam peace negotiator during
 1969.

Lodz, Battle of (November 11-25, 1914), World War I
 battle in which Russian armies in western Poland,
 moving toward Silesia and East Prussia, were
 stopped by smaller German forces, with Russian
 casualties totaling an estimated 90,000-100,000
 men. After Lodz, the Russians withdrew from
 Silesia, back into Russian-occupied Poland.

LOEWE v. Lawlor (1908), a landmark U.S. Supreme
 Court case better known as the Danbury Hatters'
 case.

Lombardo Toledano, Vicente (1894-1968), Mexican
 labor leader, a Marxist who founded the
 Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM) in 1936 and
 led it until 1941 and who closely collaborated with
 President Lazaro 
CARDENAS during 1934-40 in
 developing Mexico's radical reforms of that period.
 He was a founder of the International Confederation
 of Latin American Workers in 1936 and of the
 Popular Party in 1948, which in 1960 became the
 Popular Socialist party; and an unsuccessful
 presidential candidate in 1952.

London, Treaty of (1913), agreement ending the
 first of the two 
BALKAN WARS.

Long, Huey Pierce (1893-1935), governor and
 political boss of Louisiana in the late 1920s and
 early 1930s, who was assassinated at Baton Rouge,
 Louisiana, on September 8, 1935, by Dr. Carl Weiss;
 Weiss was then killed by Long's bodyguards. Long
 was a powerful Southern politician who had
 consolidated his hold on Louisiana after
 successfully fighting impeachment charges in 1929,
 and had developed presidential ambitions. His
 political machine survived him, making his brother,
 Earl Long, governor of Louisiana three times
 between 1939 and 1960.

Long March, the very difficult long retreat of the
 Chinese Communist armies after their defeat by
 
KUOMINTANG forces in Kiangsi in 1934. Their route
 led west and then north through mountain country to
 Shensi, a distance of 2,500-3,000 miles; but they
 were in battle with Kuomintang forces much of the
 way and reportedly marched 6,000 miles during the
 course of the entire action. Most of the leaders of
 the 
COMMUNIST government that took power in 1949
 made the march, including 
MAO ZEDONG, ZHOU ENLAI,
 and 
ZHU DE. Of the approximately 200,000 who
 began the march, an estimated 30,000-50,000
 completed it.

Longo, Luigi (1900-80), Italian Communist leader, a
 founder of the Italian Communist party in 1921 and
 a leading Communist of the interwar period, who
 fought in the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR with the
 
INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES. He spent the early years
 of World War II in an Italian prison, and led
 partisan units in northern Italy late in the war.
 During the postwar period he was second to Palmiro
 
TOGLIATTI in the Italian Communist party, and
 party leader 1964-72, a period in which he
 advocated a course independent of the Soviet Union.


Lon Nol (1913-85), Cambodian administrator and
 officer, prime minister (1966-67; 1969-70), who
 deposed Prince Norodom 
SIHANOUK as head of state
 in 1970, and set up a republic with himself at its
 head. Despite U.S. military support, his forces
 lost the 
CAMBODIAN CIVIL WAR to the 
KHMER ROUGE
 Communist army; in April 1975 he fled into exile.


Lorenz, Konrad Zacharias (1903-89), Austrian
 zoologist and psychiatrist; in the 1930s, he and
 Nikolaas 
TINBERGEN founded ethology, the
 scientific study of animal behavior, for which they
 (and Karl von Frisch) shared the 1973 Nobel Prize
 for Physiology or Medicine. He made famous the
 process called imprinting, by which newborn animals
 show patterns of behavior determined by their
 genetic makeup and earliest experiences,
 demonstrated when his favorite greylag geese
 responded to Lorenz as children to a parent. His On
 Aggression (1966) expressed the controversial view
 that some human behavior, such as aggression, is
 inherited.

Lorraine, Battle of (August 14-20, 1914), one of
 the World War I Battles of the 
FRONTIERS, in
 which French forces, in their first major offensive
 of the war, pushed into Alsace-Lorraine with
 initial success, but were thrown back by the
 Germany army.

Los Alamos, U.S. national laboratory in New Mexico,
 where the first 
ATOMIC BOMBS were designed and
 built, 1942-45, as part of the 
MANHATTAN PROJECT.


Los Angeles Times bombing (October 1, 1910),
 explosion at the Los Angeles Times, killing 21
 Times employees and injuring many more. Union
 leaders John J. and James B. 
MCNAMARA were
 charged with the crime, along with a confederate
 who testified against them. Labor saw the case as
 an attack on the whole labor movement, and a
 worldwide campaign was begun to free the McNamaras,
 with Clarence 
DARROW hired to defend them.
 Harrison Gray Otis, Times publisher, brought in
 detective William J. Burns, who claimed to find
 conclusive evidence against the McNamaras. Darrow
 saw the case as hopeless and pleaded his clients
 guilty in an attempt to save their lives; the
 attempt succeeded, James McNamara getting a life
 sentence and John McNamara a 15-year sentence. But
 the labor movement was outraged, refused to pay
 Darrow's fee, and refused to support Darrow when he
 was then twice charged with attempted bribery of
 jurors. Darrow was exonerated on both charges.

Love Canal, site near Niagara Falls, New York,
 found in the late 1970s to have been poisoned by
 decades of 
TOXIC WASTE DUMPING, including
 
DIOXIN, by local chemical plants; health and
 environmental problems multiplied in the area and
 most of its residents were forced to move away to
 preserve what remained of their health. After
 considerable resistance from federal agencies and
 lawsuits against the Hooker Chemical Company,
 Occidental Petroleum (which had acquired Hooker) in
 1983 settled long-standing lawsuits, compensating
 current and former residents of the area. During
 the 1980s New York State razed most of the
 structures in the area. The question of possible
 chemical contamination of much of the Niagara Falls
 area, as alleged by some, remained to be fully
 addressed.

Lowell, Percival (1855-1916), U.S. astronomer,
 member of the Massachusetts Lowell family and
 founder of the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff,
 Arizona, who in 1905 predicted the existence of an
 unknown planet beyond Neptune. It was discovered in
 1930 by U.S. astronomer Clyde William 
TOMBAUGH,
 and named 
PLUTO.

loyalty oaths, a 
U.S. COLD WAR phenomenon, most
 evident from 1947, when President Harry S. 
TRUMAN
 required a loyalty check of all federal employees
 and the firing of any deemed subversive. During the
 following decade such a disclaimer of Communist
 affiliation was required of many millions of
 Americans as a condition of securing or keeping
 employment, trade union position, and/or passports,
 as well as in a number of other connections. During
 the period of national revulsion against
 
MCCARTHYISM, beginning in the mid-1950s, the
 loyalty oath practice diminished, although in some
 areas remaining officially in force for decades.

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), 
HALLUCINOGENIC

 DRUG popular in the 1960s, its 
PSYCHEDELIC
 properties first discovered in 1943 by a Swiss
 chemist who accidentally ingested some. Over the
 next two decades many health professionals explored
 the use of LSD, searching for a natural biochemical
 cause of schizophrenia. But by the mid-1960s it was
 clear that in some people LSD could lead to severe
 panic, permanent psychosis, or even suicide. In
 1967 LSD was found to cause genetic damage,
 increasing the rate of chromosome-breaking in
 users. As a result, from then on LSD was largely a
 restricted drug, though still sought on the black
 market.

Luan Shu-meng, alternate, old-style name of Chinese
 leader 
JIANG QING, the wife of 
MAO ZEDONG, who
 was in 1981 convicted of being the leader of the
 
GANG OF FOUR.

Luce, Henry Robinson (1898-1967), U.S. magazine
 publisher, who with Briton Hadden in 1923 founded
 Time magazine, thereafter using that very
 successful publication as a base for his
 wholly-owned Time, Inc., and initiating several
 other high-circulation magazines, such as Life and
 Fortune. He later controlled several other
 communications companies. A political conservative,
 he was particularly active as a leading
 anti-Communist during the 
MCCARTHY period.

Luciano, Charles "Lucky" (1897-1962), a leader of
 organized crime in the United States during the
 1930s, and a chief organizer of the national crime
 syndicate controlled by the 
MAFIA. He was
 successfully prosecuted by District Attorney Thomas
 E. Dewey in 1936, but his 30-50 year sentence was
 commuted in 1946 for service to the United States
 during World War II; he was then deported to Italy.


Ludendorff, Erich (1865-1937), Prussian general,
 active in German preparation for World War I. His
 forces scored the first major German victory of the
 war, taking the fortress of Liege, Belgium, on
 August 14, 1914. He spent most of the war on the
 Eastern Front, as General Paul von 
HINDENBURG's
 chief of staff. In 1916, when von Hindenburg became
 chief of the German general staff, Ludendorff
 became his quartermaster general. He was an early
 supporter of Adolf 
HITLER, but later backed away
 somewhat.

Lufthansa robbery (December 11, 1978), the robbery
 at the Lufthansa Airlines cargo warehouse at New
 York City's Kennedy Airport; the largest robbery in
 U.S. history, realizing $5.85 million. The robbery
 remains largely unsolved.

Lujan, Manuel Jr. (1928- ), U.S. political leader,
 a long-term New Mexico Republican congressman
 1969-89, who on December 22, 1988, was named
 secretary of the interior by President George
 
BUSH.

Luminous Path, an alternate name for the Peruvian
 
SHINING PATH guerrilla army.

Lumumba, Patrice (1925-61), Congolese nationalist
 who founded the Congolese National Movement in
 1958, and who on June 30, 1960 became coalition
 prime minister of the first independent Congo
 (Zaire) government. When insurrection immediately
 developed, including the Belgian-supported Katanga
 secession, he sought help from the Soviet Union and
 was dismissed by President Joseph 
KASAVUBU. He
 fled after a military coup led by General Joseph
 
MOBUTU, but was imprisoned and then murdered in
 January 1961 by the secessionist Katanga government
 led by Moise 
TSHOMBE.

Lunar Orbiter, series of U.S. unmanned spacecraft
 exploring for possible landing sites on the 
MOON
 in the 1960s, preparatory to the 
APOLLO flights.


lunatic fringe, phrase coined by U.S. president
 Theodore 
ROOSEVELT in his Autobiography (1913);
 from "the lunatic fringe in all reform movements."


Lunik, series of U.S.S.R. satellites launched
 toward the Moon, starting in 1959. Lunik 2, the
 first to reach the Moon, made a "hard" or crash
 landing on September 14, 1959; Lunik 3, launched on
 October 4, 1959, first photographed the Moon's far
 side on a flyby; Lunik 9 made a soft landing on the
 Moon on February 3, 1966; Lunik 10 first orbited
 the Moon on April 4, 1966; and Lunik 19, launched
 September 12, 1970, landed a remote-controlled
 roving vehicle on the Moon's surface.

Lusitania, sinking of (May 7, 1915), World War I
 attack in which the British liner 
LUSITANIA was
 torpedoed without warning by a German U-20
 submarine off the Irish coast; 1,198 died, 128 of
 them Americans. The British successfully denied
 that the ship was carrying munitions as well as
 passengers; the sinking aroused great anger in the
 United States and contributed to later American
 entry into World War I.

Luthuli, Albert John (1898-1967), South African
 Zulu chief, teacher, and leader of the South
 African nonviolence movement, who, after many years
 of work in the 
AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS, became
 its president in 1952. He was unsuccessfully
 prosecuted for treason by the South African
 government in 1956, generating a worldwide protest,
 and was in his later years placed in internal
 exile. One of the world's leading advocates of
 nonviolence, he received the Nobel Peace Prize in
 1960.

Luxemburg, Rosa (1871-1919), Polish socialist
 activist and theoretician who became a founder of
 the Polish Social Democratic party, the Polish
 Communist party, the German Spartacist League, and
 the Communist party of Germany. She was active in
 Warsaw during the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION of 1905 and
 was afterward imprisoned; she was imprisoned again
 in Germany in 1916, for opposing World War I. With
 Karl 
LIEBKNECHT, she led the failed 
SPARTICIST
 revolt of January 1919; when captured, they were
 both murdered by right-wing 
FREIKORPS troops on
 January 15, 1919.

Lyme disease, tick-borne bacterial disease that can
 cause arthritis and serious neurological and
 cardiological problems. Though its effects were
 known in Europe from the 19th century and in the
 United States from at least the mid-1960s, it was
 not recognized as a disease until 1976, when Allen
 Steere and a Yale medical team were alerted by a
 mother in Lyme, Connecticut, to the unusual
 incidence of arthritis in a nearby wooded area. The
 bacteria responsible, Borrelia burgdorferi, carried
 by deer ticks, was isolated 6 years later by Willy
 Burgdorfer. Lyme disease responds to various
 
ANTIBIOTICS, but is often mistaken for flu and
 untreated. By the 1980s the disease had spread to
 most parts of the United States, occurring in
 epidemic proportions in the Northeast.

Lynd, Robert Staughton (1892-1970), and Helen
 Merrell Lynd (1894-1982), U.S. sociologists who
 did classic studies of middle-class America,
 described in their books Middletown (1929) and
 Middletown in Transition (1937); these were based
 on Muncie, Indiana, but passed into popular culture
 as an anthropological portrait of middle America in
 general.

Lys Offensive (April 9-29, 1918), the second of
 five major German offensives in 1918, all of them
 aimed at winning World War I with the help of the
 Eastern Front troops freed by Soviet withdrawal
 from the war. German forces attacked British armies
 in Flanders, seeking to break through to take the
 Channel ports, but failed in the attempt.

Lysenko, Trofim Denisovich (1898-1976), Soviet
 agriculturalist and geneticist who fiercely
 supported the Lamarckian view of the inheritance of
 acquired characteristics against the scientifically
 supported view of inheritance put forward by Gregor
 Mendel and Thomas Hunt 
MORGAN. In 1929 Lysenko
 purported to have found a way to modify plants so
 that the changes would be passed on to later
 generations. When other scientists could not
 reproduce his supposed results, he attacked
 
GENETICS and geneticists, denying that the 
GENE
 existed and taking refuge in political oratory.
 From 1935, with support from 
STALIN, Lysenko
 gradually purged from Soviet scientific research
 all of those who disagreed with him, sidetracking
 Soviet genetics and agricultural science onto a
 dead-end path for over 20 years; he lost power only
 after 1956, though remaining director of the
 Institute of Genetics until 1965. During this time
 not only did the Russians lose the benefits of
 possible biological research but farmers were
 required to plant crops according to his
 nonscientific methods, making Lysenko responsible
 to a large degree for the failure of the U.S.S.R.'s
 farmlands to feed its people.

Lytton Commission, the 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 commission that declared Japan an aggressor nation
 after its invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Japan
 withdrew from the League of Nations and continue to
 hold Manchuria until the end of World War II.

MacArthur, Douglas (1880-1964), U.S. army officer,
 son of General Arthur MacArthur, who saw service as
 a divisional commander in World War I and during
 the interwar period was army chief of staff
 (1930-35). In 1932 he commanded the military forces
 that violently ejected the war veteran 
BONUS

 MARCHERS from their Washington, DC, encampment at
 Anacostia Flats. He resigned from the U.S. Army in
 1937 while American commander in the Philippines,
 staying on to command Philippine army forces.
 Rejoining the U.S. Army, he became Philippines
 combined forces commander in July 1941. His forces
 unsuccessfully opposed the Japanese invasion of the
 Philippines during World War II, and he was
 evacuated in February 1942, becoming commander for
 the Allied Southwest Pacific. He led Allied forces
 retaking the Philippines in 1944-45, became a
 five-star general, and personally took the formal
 Japanese surrender in Tokyo harbor on September 2,
 1945. After serving as Allied commander of postwar
 Japanese occupation forces, he was named commander
 of 
UNITED NATIONS forces at the outbreak of the
 
KOREAN WAR. By November 1950 his forces had
 reached the 
YALU River, the border between North
 Korea and China, there to be met by a major Chinese
 counterattack and the entry of China into the war.
 President Harry 
TRUMAN refused MacArthur's call
 for the bombing of China, and MacArthur publicly
 disagreed; as a result he was dismissed from
 command in April 1951. Although he then became a
 major focus of political opposition, he did not
 attempt to move into elected office; instead he
 retired from public life.

McAuliffe, Anthony (1898-1975), U.S. officer who
 commanded the 101st Airborne Division, besieged at
 
BASTOGNE during the Battle of the 
BULGE in
 December 1944. On December 22 his classic response
 to a German surrender ultimatum was "
NUTS!"

McAuliffe, Sharon Christa, Concord, New Hampshire,
 social studies teacher selected to be the first
 teacher in space; she died with six astronauts in
 the Challenger explosion, on January 28, 1986.

MacBride, Sean (1904-88), Irish Republican leader,
 the only son of Maud Gonne and John MacBride, a
 Republican soldier executed after the 
EASTER

 RISING. While still a youth, he fought in the
 
IRISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE and the 
IRISH CIVIL

 WAR, becoming a leader of the outlawed Irish
 Republican Army (IRA) in the late 1920s. In the
 late 1930s he left the IRA and practiced law, in
 part as an IRA defense lawyer. He organized a new
 party and went into electoral politics after World
 War II; he became Irish foreign minister in the
 1948 coalition government, but left Irish politics
 in 1957 after a series of defeats. In 1963 he
 became secretary-general of the International
 Commission of Jurists, a human rights organization,
 from then on focusing on human rights and
 disarmament questions. In 1974 he received the
 Nobel Peace Prize; in 1977, the Lenin Peace Prize.


McCarran Internal Security Act (1950), U.S. law
 requiring registration of all Communist and
 Communist-front groups and their members; it denied
 passports and government or defense industry
 employment to members of such groups, prohibited
 similarly affiliated aliens from gaining admittance
 and citizenship, and empowered the federal
 government to set up detention camps in case of
 war. President Harry S. 
TRUMAN vetoed the bill;
 it was passed over his veto during the
 anti-Communist hysteria of the 
MCCARTHY period.


McCarthy, Eugene Joseph (1916- ), U.S. teacher and
 poet, a Minnesota Democratic congressman (1949-59)
 and senator (1959-71). A 
VIETNAM WAR opponent, he
 campaigned for the Democratic presidential
 nomination in 1967-68, ultimately losing the
 nomination to Hubert H. 
HUMPHREY at the
 violence-filled 
CHICAGO DEMOCRATIC CONVENTION OF
 1968. His independent presidential candidacy of
 1976 had little impact.

McCarthy, Joseph Raymond (1908-57), U.S. lawyer and
 Wisconsin senator (1947-57). From February 1950
 through April 1954 McCarthy was the leading
 witchhunter of his time, his name ultimately
 supplying a new pejorative word to the English
 language: "
MCCARTHYISM." He began his brief but
 powerful assault on American democracy on February
 9, 1950, with a speech falsely charging that there
 were 205 card-carrying Communists in the state
 department, and continued in the same vein
 thereafter. His career essentially ended at the
 televised 
ARMY-MCCARTHY HEARINGS of April 1954,
 in which U.S. Army attorney Joseph 
WELCH
 effectively exposed and ruined McCarthy. But for
 more than 3 years McCarthy and such assistants as
 Roy 
COHN enjoyed huge influence and great popular
 support, attacking and vilifying a wide range of
 imagined subversives and traitors, in the process
 ruining a good many careers and tainting the
 "McCarthy period" in U.S. history. He was censured
 by the Senate in December 1954.

McCarthyism, synonym for witchhunting aimed at
 alleged subversives during the 1950s, named after
 Senator Joseph 
MCCARTHY; later the term kept that
 meaning, while also becoming an epithet aimed at
 anyone engaged in the reckless public vilification
 of others.

McCloy, John Jay (1895-1989), U.S. lawyer, an
 assistant secretary of war 1941-45, president of
 the International Bank for Reconstruction and
 Development 1947-49, and U.S. high commissioner for
 Germany 1949-52. As high commissioner, he played a
 major 
COLD WAR role in preserving and encouraging
 the rebuilding of West German industry, and in
 encouraging West German rearmament. He was chairman
 of the Chase Manhattan Bank from 1953 to 1960, and
 continued to advise several successive American
 presidents on foreign policy matters through the
 1970s.

MacDonald, James Ramsay (1866-1937), moderate
 British socialist who was active in organizing the
 Labour Representation Committee in 1900, was
 elected to Parliament in 1906 as the committee
 formed itself into the Labour party, and became
 leader of his party in 1911. He lost his leadership
 and much of his support, and in 1918 his seat in
 the House of Commons, for supposedly not supporting
 World War I strongly enough. He was reelected in
 1922 and became the first Labour prime minister,
 for 10 months in 1924. In 1929 he again became
 Labour prime minister but faced a loss of power in
 August 1931, given the tremendous economic problems
 of the 
GREAT DEPRESSION. To hold power he then
 converted his government into a coalition
 government dominated by Conservatives-much against
 the wishes of most of those in the Labour party,
 who viewed him as a traitor-continuing in office
 until 1935.

MacDonald murders (February 17, 1970), the killings
 of Colette MacDonald and her two daughters, in
 which army doctor and Green Beret captain Jeffrey
 MacDonald was slightly injured, in their Fort
 Bragg, North Carolina, home. MacDonald claimed that
 intruders had committed the murders and that his
 injuries were the result of his struggle with them.
 He was not believed, was court-martialed by the
 U.S. Army later that year, then exonerated and
 honorably discharged. But Colette MacDonald's
 stepfather, at first his defender, later came to
 believe him guilty and had the case reopened.
 MacDonald was indicted in 1975, convicted of murder
 in 1979, and sentenced to three consecutive
 life-imprisonment terms.

McDonald's Restaurant massacre (July 18, 1984), the
 killing of 21 people, most of them children, at a
 San Ysidro, California, McDonald's Restaurant, the
 worst mass murder on a single day in U.S. history.
 The killer was James Oliver Huberty, a security
 guard who had been fired. The restaurant was
 quickly razed and left as a memorial to the dead.


McDougall, William (1871-1938), English-American
 psychologist, whose views on 
EUGENICS-notably the
 supposed superiority of the "Nordic race"-as
 expressed in his 1921 work Is America Safe for
 Democracy?, caused a firestorm of criticism, as did
 his belief in the inheritance of acquired
 characteristics. He had earlier done key work in
 psychophysics, proposing that intellectual
 operations are carried out through a network of
 neural circuits.

McFarlane, Robert Carl (1937- ), U.S. naval
 officer, military assistant to Henry 
KISSINGER in
 the White House, 1973-75; special assistant to the
 president for national security affairs in the
 White House, 1975-77; and on the staff of the
 Senate Armed Services Committee, 1979-81, after his
 resignation from the Marine Corps. In 1981 he
 became a state department counselor and then deputy
 assistant for national security affairs in the
 White House; he succeeded William Clark as national
 security adviser in October 1983, resigning in
 December 1985 after implication in the 
IRAN-CONTRA

 AFFAIR. In March 1988 he pleaded guilty to having
 withheld information from House and Senate
 Iran-Contra investigation committees, and during
 1989 was a witness at subsequent related trials.

McGovern, George Stanley (1922- ), U.S. political
 leader, South Dakota congressman 1957-61, and head
 of John F.
 KENNEDY'S Food for Peace program,
 1961-62. Elected to the Senate in 1962, he soon
 became an opponent of the 
VIETNAM WAR and a
 leader of the liberal wing of the Democratic party.
 He won his party's presidential nomination in 1972,
 suffering a serious early blow when he decided to
 drop his running mate, Senator Thomas
 EAGLETON,
 because of previously undisclosed potential
 psychiatric problems; he went on to lose in what
 became a
 NIXON landslide, winning only
 Massachusetts and the District of Columbia. He lost
 his Senate seat in the 1980 election, and
 unsuccessfully sought his party's 1984 presidential
 nomination.

McKinley, William (1843-1901), U.S. lawyer, an Ohio
 Republican congressman (1877-91), and twice
 governor of Ohio (1892-96), who became the 25th
 president of the United States (1897-1901), the
 first American president of the 20th century. In
 1896 and again in 1900 he defeated Democrat William
 Jennings
 BRYAN for the presidency. During his
 first term he led the United States into the
 Spanish-American War, followed by the occupation of
 Cuba and the Philippines and the annexation of
 Puerto Rico. His adminstration then faced a major
 insurrection in the Philippines led by Emile


 AGUINALDO. He also sent U.S. troops into China
 during the
 BOXER REBELLION; they participated in
 the relief of the besieged foreign legations in
 Peking. A fiscal conservative, McKinley was largely
 responsible for establishing stronger tariff
 barriers, and in 1900 he succeeded in placing the
 United States on the gold standard, rather than the
 more expansionist silver or silver-and-gold
 standard favored by the Democrats. Early in his
 second term, on September 6, 1901, he was shot by
 anarchist Leon
 CZOLGOSZ in Buffalo, New York. He
 died in that city on September 14, and was
 succeeded by his vice-president, Theodore


 ROOSEVELT.

McKissick, Floyd (1922- ), U.S. lawyer and civil
 rights leader who was national chairman of the


 CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY (CORE), 1966-68, in
 that period favoring a move away from nonviolence
 and calling for
 BLACK POWER.

Maclean, Donald (1913-83), British diplomat and
 spy, who was exposed in 1951 as actually having
 been a Soviet spy since his Cambridge days in the
 1930s, along with his college friends and Soviet
 espionage network colleagues Kim
 PHILBY and Guy


 BURGESS. Burgess and Maclean escaped to the Soviet
 Union in 1951, thereafter continuing to work in
 Soviet intelligence.

McLuhan, Herbert Marshall (1911-80), Canadian
 literary professor and communications theorist, who
 posited that the rise of the
 ELECTRONIC media,
 especially
 TELEVISION, had transformed a
 previously atomized world culture into one great
 interconnected "global village," and that the
 printed word in book form would gradually
 disappear. His views on television were made
 popular by his 1967 book (with Quentin Fiore), The
 Medium Is the Message.

Macmillan, Maurice Harold (1894-1986), British
 publisher who became a leading Conservative; in
 Parliament 1924-29 and 1931-64. He opposed


 APPEASEMENT in the late 1930s and was a member of
 Winston
 CHURCHILL'S wartime cabinet, responsible
 for Mediterranean and southeastern European
 political affairs from 1942 until 1945. In later
 years he was criticized by opponents for allegedly
 having too easily acquiesced to the repatriation of
 displaced persons to Soviet-bloc nations. He held
 several cabinet-level positions before succeeding
 Anthony
 EDEN as prime minister in 1957, holding
 that office until his resignation in 1963. The


 PROFUMO AFFAIR further damaged his weakening
 Conservative government, which was then supplanted
 by the second postwar Labour government.

McNamara, Robert Strange (1916- ), president of
 Ford Motor Company who became U.S. secretary of
 defense (1961-68), and as such was deeply involved
 in the succession of steps that drew the United
 States into the
 VIETNAM WAR. During 1965 he
 developed grave doubts about U.S. war strategy, in
 particular the bombing of North Vietnam, and by
 1967 had come to oppose continued expansion of
 American involvement. In 1968 he resigned to become
 president of the
 WORLD BANK.

McNamara brothers, California labor leaders John J.
 and James B. McNamara, who pleaded guilty of having
 committed the
 LOS ANGELES TIMES BOMBING of 1910,
 as advised by their lawyer, Clarence
 DARROW.

Mach, ratio of the speed of an object to the speed
 of sound in the medium it is traveling through, so
 a craft traveling at the speed of sound is at Mach
 1, and
 SUPERSONIC TRANSPORT traveling at twice
 the speed of sound is at Mach 2.

Machel, Samora (1933-86), Mozambique independence
 movement leader who joined Eduardo 
MONDLANE in
 
FRELIMO in 1963 and in 1964 commanded guerrilla
 forces at the start of the long 
MOZAMBIQUE WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE. He became leader of FRELIMO in 1970,
 after Mondlane's assassination by the Portuguese in
 1969, and first president of independent Mozambique
 in 1975. A Marxist, he developed a one-party
 FRELIMO-dominated Socialist state, heavily
 supported by the Soviet Union. But economic
 problems and an increasingly successful continuing
 insurgency, supported by South Africa, caused him
 to moderate previous positions. Mozambique signed a
 nonaggression treaty with South Africa in 1984, and
 sought 
WORLD BANK loans and private investment.
 Machel died in a 1986 airplane crash.

Machu Picchu, long-lost Inca stronghold high in the
 Peruvian Andes, rediscovered by U.S. explorer
 Hiram
 BINGHAM in 1911, and later a major tourist
 attraction.

Mackle, Barbara Jane, American woman kidnapped on
 December 17, 1968, in Atlanta, Georgia, by Gary
 Steven Krist and Ruth Eisenmann-Schier. She was
 then buried alive in a shallow grave and found
 alive on December 20, after her $500,000 ransom was
 paid. Her kidnappers were captured, and most of the
 ransom was recovered; Krist was imprisoned for
 life, Eisenmann-Schier for 7 years.

Madagascar (Democratic Republic of Madagascar),
 until 1958 a French colony, then the autonomous
 Malagasy Republic. Full independence came on June
 30, 1960, and the country's present name was
 adopted in 1975.

Madero, Francisco Indalecio (1873-1913), Mexican
 landowner and liberal, who ran for the Mexican
 presidency against Porforio
 DAZ in 1910; he was
 arrested before the election, and Daz then declared
 himself the winner. Madero jumped bail and escaped
 to Texas, where he organized the armed revolt that
 became the
 MEXICAN REVOLUTION, bringing him to
 the presidency in October 1911. By early 1913, he
 had been accused of going too slowly on such
 matters as land reform and the condition of the
 poor; and many of his former supporters, including
 Emiliano
 ZAPATA, had risen against him, beginning
 the long civil war that was intertwined with the
 revolution. In February his own Mexico City
 garrison, led by Victoriano
 HUERTA, took power in
 a coup. Madero was assassinated by Huerta's forces
 on February 22, 1913.

Madrid, Siege of (November 1936-March 1939), the
 28-month-long attack on Madrid by fascist Spanish,
 German, and Italian ground and air forces during
 the
 SPANISH CIVIL WAR.

Mafia, in Sicily, a centuries-old group of allied
 secret criminal societies, organized essentially
 along feudal lines; in the 20th century, they have
 developed the power to resist sucessfully many
 Italian government attempts to break them up or
 reduce their power. In the United States, the Mafia
 was a similar but independent set of organizations,
 developed by a few early Italian immigrants from
 the 1880s on, which proved equally resistant to
 public control. Until the late 1920s, these were
 Italian-American Mafia organizations; after the
 Castellammarese intra-Mafia factional war of that
 period and the advent of the far better organized
 and controlled national crime syndicate, which was
 in part also multiethnic, the term Mafia became in
 practice synonymous with such terms as "the
 Syndicate," ""the Organization," and Cosa Nostra
 (Our Thing).

Magellan, U.S. space probe launched on a 15-month,
 795-million-mile voyage toward 
VENUS in May 1989,
 the first such craft to be released from a
 SPACE

 SHUTTLE, the Atlantis, and due to reach its target
 in August 1990. In a sign of easing superpower
 relations, U.S.S.R. space scientists shared with
 their U.S. counterparts data from their earlier
 Venus probes, in preparation for the Magellan
 probe.

MAGIC, World War II code name for the long U.S.
 effort to break a series of secret Japanese codes,
 which succeeded to great effect before the Battle
 of
 MIDWAY, deeply affecting the outcome of that
 decisive battle of the Pacific war.

magic bullet, popular name for Paul
 EHRLICH'S
 arsenic treatment for
 SYPHILIS, developed in
 1910.

Maginot Line, a huge system of French
 fortifications on the French-German border, built
 in the 1930s, in place at the beginning of World
 War II, and relied on by France to stop a German
 invasion with minimum casualties. Named after Andre
 Maginot, a key initiator, the Line provided only an
 illusion of safety, for it was never extended to
 the sea; in May 1940 the German army went right
 around it into the lightly defended
 ARDENNES,
 there making the breakthrough near Sedan that led
 to the fall of France.

magnetic recording tape, magnetized tape to record
 sounds or signals for later reproduction, first
 used during World War II by the Germans to make


 TAPE RECORDINGS.

magnetic resonance imager (MRI), alternate name for
 the
 NMR IMAGER.

Magsaysay, Ramon (1907-57), Filipino World War II
 anti-Japanese guerrilla leader who went into
 politics after the war, serving as Philippines
 defense minister 1950-53 and in that position
 playing a key role in the defeat of the
 Communist-led
 HUKBALAHAP insurgency. He became
 president of the Philippines in 1953, and was
 killed in an airplane crash in 1957.

Ma Haide, the Chinese name of George
 HATEM,
 American public health doctor who joined the
 Chinese Communist movement in the late 1930s and
 stayed on for half a century, becoming a leading
 public health doctor in China and throughout the
 world.

Mahathir bin Mohamad, Datuk Seri (1925- ),
 Malaysian physician, in parliament 1964-69 and
 again from 1974, who was minister of education in
 1974, deputy prime minister 1976-81, then prime
 minister from 1981.

Mahdi, Sadiq al- (1936- ), Sudanese political
 leader and prime minister of the Sudan from 1986;
 he was a great-grandson of Muhammad Ahmad ibn
 as-Sayyid 'Abd Allah, the Mahdi who in the 1880s
 led the successful Sudanese revolt against
 Egyptian-British rule. A moderate, al-Mahdi opposed
 Islamic fundamentalist rule of the Sudan but was
 unable to reconcile the ruling Moslem north with
 the Christian and animist south to end the long


 SUDANESE CIVIL WAR. The war continued and with it
 growing insurgent domination of the south, massive
 international debt payment problems, and worsening
 famine, leading to the starvation of an estimated 1
 million Chad and Ethiopian refugees in the Sudan
 and hundreds of thousands of Sudanese displaced by
 the civil war.

Makarios III (Michael Khristodoulou Mouskos;
 1913-77), Greek Orthodox priest, who became
 archbishop of Cyprus in 1950 and leader of the
 Cypriot self-determination movement. Until 1959 he
 fostered the goal of enosis (union with Greece)
 rather than continuing British colonial control.
 Exiled to the Seychelles by the British in 1956, he
 returned to live in Athens until 1959, when he
 negotiated Cypriot independence with the British,
 foregoing immediate enosis. He became first
 president of Cyprus in December 1959, while bitter
 Greek-Turkish guerrilla warfare on Cyprus, which
 had begun in the early 1950s, escalated in 1963
 into the
 CYPRUS CIVIL WAR. The civil war drew
 Greek and Turkish military intervention and the
 continuing presence of
 UNITED NATIONS
 peacekeeping forces until 1967. In 1974 Makarios
 was forced to flee Cyprus after a successful Greek
 officers' revolt, organized by the military
 dictatorship in Greece. He returned in December,
 after Turkish seizure of much of northern Cyprus,
 and after both the Greek and the Cyprus military
 governments had fallen. He was then reelected to
 the presidency, dying in office.

Malagasy Republic, the name of the Democratic
 Republic of
 MADAGASCAR from 1958 to 1975, when
 the name People's Republic of Madagascar was
 adopted.

Malan, Daniel Francois (1874-1959), South African
 minister and Afrikaner nationalist, who devoted his
 life to the restoration of Boer rule and
 19th-century Boer racism in South Africa. He
 entered parliament in 1918, was opposition leader
 during the late 1930s and again in the early 1940s,
 and came to power as National party prime minister
 in 1948, then instituting the
 APARTHEID policies
 that were to tear South African society apart
 during the following four decades.

Malawi (Republic of Malawi), until 1953 Nyasaland,
 a British protectorate. In 1953 Nyasaland was
 joined to
 RHODESIA, but nationalist protests
 forced dissolution of the federation in 1963.
 Malawi became an independent state and


 COMMONWEALTH member on July 6, 1964, led by Prime
 Minister Hastings
 BANDA, who then continued as
 president from 1966.

Malaya (Independent Federation of Malaya),
 federation of various Malay states, until 1957
 controlled by Great Britain and becoming an
 independent nation and
 COMMONWEALTH member on
 August 31, 1957. On September 16, 1963, Malaya
 joined with Sarawak, Sabah, and Singapore (which
 later withdrew) to form
 MALAYSIA.

Malaya, Battle of (December 1941-January 1942),
 early World War II campaign, starting on December
 8, 1941, when Japanese invasion forces landed in
 northern Malaya; in the next 2 months they fought
 their way south to
 SINGAPORE against ineffective
 British and Malay opposition. By January 31 the
 Japanese had taken mainland Malaya and faced
 Singapore across the Strait of Johore.

Malayan Civil War (1948-60), a protracted
 Communist-led guerrilla war, in which mainly ethnic
 Chinese-Malayan forces led by Chen Ping were
 ultimately defeated by British, colonial, and
 ethnic Malayan forces. The latter succeeded in
 blocking rebel sources of supply, winning the
 allegiance of large numbers of rural Malays with
 promises and then delivery of full independence
 from Britain, and developed effective airborne and
 base-area guerrilla war techniques.

Malaysia, until 1957 various Malay states
 controlled by Great Britain, using a variety of
 governmental forms. Following the suppression of
 the post-World War II Malayan insurrection came the
 August 31, 1957, formation of the Independent
 Federation of Malaya, with
 COMMONWEALTH
 membership. On September 16, 1963, this was
 supplanted by Malaysia, which then included


 SINGAPORE, Sarawak, and Sabah; Singapore later
 withdrew.

Malaysian National Front, the ruling and by far the
 strongest party in Malaysia. It is a coalition of
 several component parties, including the United
 Malaya National Organization (UMNO), which carried
 the main thrust of the Malayan independence
 movement and of the succeeding Alliance party under
 the leadership of Tunku
 ABDUL RAHMAN in the
 post-World War II period; the Malaysian Chinese
 Association (MCA); the Malaysian Indian Congress
 (MIC); and several smaller parties.

Malcolm X (Malcolm Little; 1925-65), Black Muslim
 leader of the l960s and founder of the newspaper
 Muhammad Speaks. He was a leader of the Nation of
 Islam, then headed by Elijah Muhammad, until
 leaving to form the Muslim Mosque in 1964. Malcolm
 X was assassinated in New York City on February 21,
 1965.

Maldives (Republic of Maldives), until 1960 a
 British protectorate. The island nation achieved
 internal autonomy in 1960, gained independence as a
 sultanate on July 25, 1965, and became a republic
 in 1968.

malefactors of great wealth, phrase coined by U.S.
 president Theodore
 ROOSEVELT, in a speech at
 Provincetown, Massachusetts, on August 7, 1907.

Malenkov, Georgi Maksimilianovich (1902- ), Soviet
 Communist party official, closely associated with
 Joseph
 STALIN from the 1920s and from 1932
 Stalin's chief personal aide. He became a Politburo
 member and deputy prime minister in 1946, succeeded
 Stalin after his death in 1953, then took steps to
 change course away from Stalinist terror, even
 though he had been closely associated with that
 terror during his entire career. Domestically, he
 moved toward consumer goods production;
 internationally, away from confrontation with the
 United States. But his period of power was brief;
 within a few months he was engaged in a power
 struggle with Nikita
 KHRUSHCHEV, which Malenkov
 lost in 1955. In 1957 he and his supporters were
 removed from all major party posts, and he was
 later expelled from his party.

Mali (Republic of Mali), until 1958 Sudan, part of
 French West Africa. Internal autonomy was granted
 in 1958; independence came on June 20, 1960. During
 1959 and 1960 Mali and
 SENEGAL were briefly
 joined in the Federation of Mali.

Malinowski, Bronislaw (1884-1942), Polish
 anthropologist, whose fieldwork in the Trobriand
 Islands and other Pacific cultures provided models
 that greatly influenced later generations of
 anthropologists. During his tenures at the
 University of London (1924-39) and at Yale
 (1939-42) he exerted a major influence on
 anthropological theory and practice. Among those he
 influenced were some of the colonial independence
 movement leaders then resident in Great Britain,
 including Jomo
 KENYATTA.

Malmedy Massacre (December 17, 1944), the murder of
 86 U.S. prisoners of war by German
 SS troops
 during the
 BATTLE OF THE BULGE.

Malraux, Andre (1901-76), French writer,
 philosopher, and public official, who wrote of his
 experiences early in the
 CHINESE CIVIL WAR and of
 his friend
 ZHOU ENLAI in his seminal novel, Man's
 Fate (1933). In his novel  Man's Hope (1938) he
 wrote of his experience in the
 SPANISH CIVIL WAR.
 Turning away from his early radical views after
 World War II, he became Charles
 DE GAULLE'S
 culture minister 1959-69.

Malta (Republic of Malta), until 1964 a British
 colony, becoming independent and a
 COMMONWEALTH
 member on September 21, 1964. In 1974 Malta became
 a republic.

Malta Summit (December 2-3, 1989), the first
 
BUSH-GORBACHEV summit, held aboard Soviet and
 U.S. ships at anchor in Marsaxlokk Bay, Malta. The
 meetings were more general and exploratory than
 substantive, with both presidents indicating
 progress in a post-
COLD WAR atmosphere, but no
 specific agreements eventuating.

Managua earthquake (December 23, 1972), an
 earthquake that destroyed much of the center of the
 Nicaraguan capital, killing an estimated 5,000
 people. The failure of the corrupt
 SOMOZA
 government to distribute international relief
 supplies was greatly resented, contributing to the
 downfall of the regime.

Mandela, Nelson Rohihlahia (1918- ), South African
 lawyer, an activist in the
 AFRICAN NATIONAL

 CONGRESS (ANC) from 1944, and a deputy
 vice-president of the ANC from 1952. Until the


 SHARPEVILLE MASSACRE of 1960 Mandela was a leading
 South African advocate of nonviolence; after
 Sharpeville he engaged in sabotage. He was
 imprisoned in 1962, that imprisonment becoming a
 life sentence for himself and seven others in 1964.
 While in prison he became the undisputed leader of
 the South African freedom movement and a worldwide
 symbol of resistance to racism. During the latter
 years of his imprisonment he was repeatedly offered
 his freedom by the South African government,
 subject to conditions, but he refused to accept
 less than an unconditional release. He was released
 on February 11, 1990, beginning a new era in South
 African history.

Mandela, Winnie (1936- ), South African social
 worker who became an
 AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
 activist in 1956 and married Nelson
 MANDELA in
 1958. After his imprisonment she became a leader of
 the South African freedom movement, was penalized
 by the South African government on several
 occasions, and was placed in internal exile in
 1977. In 1985 she defied government restrictions
 and began to make public appearances, ignoring
 government threats to imprison her. In 1988 her
 prestige and ability to lead were seriously
 impaired by her alleged involvement in beatings and
 at least one murder allegedly committed by her
 bodyguards.

MANHATTAN, U.S. ice-breaking oil tanker, the first
 commercial ship to traverse the 
NORTHWEST

 PASSAGE, north of North America, in 1969.

Manhattan Project (1942-45), shortened code name
 for the U.S. research and development effort that
 produced the first 
ATOMIC BOMB, using 
NUCLEAR

 FISSION; formally named the Manhattan District of
 the Army Corps of Engineers. The multi-pronged
 project, employing scientists at many universities,
 was placed under the direction of General Leslie R.
 
GROVES in 1942. Enrico
 FERMI's research group,
 working in a squash court at the University of
 Chicago, built the world's first
 NUCLEAR REACTOR
 and developed the first successful 
CHAIN REACTION
 on December 2, 1942, in the process producing
 fissionable
 PLUTONIUM. In 1941, using the
 
CYCLOTRON at the University of California at
 Berkeley, Ernest O.
 LAWRENCE learned how to
 separate out fissionable 
URANIUM, techniques
 employed from 1943 on a larger scale at 
OAK

 RIDGE, Tennessee. In 1943 Harold 
UREY and John
 R. Dunning, working at Columbia University, worked
 out a gaseous diffusion method of extracting
 uranium 235 that was employed at Oak Ridge from
 1945. J. Robert 
OPPENHEIMER supervised the actual
 design and construction of the bomb from 1943 at
 
LOS ALAMOS, New Mexico; the first atomic bomb was
 set off at 
ALAMOGORDO, New Mexico, July 16, 1945,
 in a test called 
TRINITY. The first atomic bombs
 used in warfare destroyed
 HIROSHIMA and


 NAGASAKI, Japan, on August 6 and August 9, 1945.
 The Manhattan Project was disbanded in 1946 and its
 functions taken over by the
 ATOMIC ENERGY

 COMMISSION (AEC).

Manifest Destiny, U.S. imperialist call for
 expansion into the Carribbean and the Pacific put
 forward by William Seward in the 1870s. It was
 revived by Alfred Mahan in the 1890s, and adopted
 by such early imperialists as Theodore 
ROOSEVELT
 and Henry Cabot
 LODGE. The theory was part of the
 rationale for American expansionism in the early
 20th century.

Manley, Michael (1923- ), Jamaican trade union
 official, political leader, and socialist, son of
 Norman Manley, who had founded the People's
 National party in 1939. Michael Manley became
 president of the People's National party in 1969
 and was prime minister from 1972 to 1980, in that
 position embarking Jamaica on a set of ambitious
 socialist programs and emerging as a
 NONALIGNED

 MOVEMENT spokesperson in world affairs.

Mannerheim, Karl Gustaf Emil (1867-1951), Finnish
 baron who commanded White forces during the
 
FINNISH CIVIL WAR of 1918. He defeated Red forces
 with German aid, resisted German domination of
 Finland, and temporarily left public life after
 losing Finland's first presidential race in 1919.
 He became a field marshal in 1933, commanded
 Finnish forces during and after the
 SOVIET-FINNISH

 WAR OF 1939-40, and was president of Finland
 1944-46.

Mannheim, Karl (1893-1947), Hungarian sociologist,
 a college teacher in Germany, 1919-33, and in Great
 Britain, 1933-47. His best-known work was Ideology
 and Utopia (1936), a study relating ideas to social
 and class origins and current status.

Mansi railroad disaster (June 7, 1981), disaster
 that occurred at Mansi, India, when an overloaded
 train stalled on a railroad bridge during a storm.
 Seven cars were swept off the bridge; probably more
 than 500 people died, although official estimates
 came to 268.

Manson, Charles (1934- ), mass murderer who, with
 four others, committed the cult murders of five
 people-including actress Sharon Tate and her unborn
 child-in Beverly Hills, California, on August 9,
 1969. On August 11 the group committed two more
 cult murders. All five murderers were subsequently
 sentenced to life imprisonment.

Manstein, Erich von (1887-1973), German officer,
 who saw service in World War I, and early in World
 War II participated in the invasions of Poland and
 France; his plan to penetrate French defenses at
 Sedan was the key to the fall of France in May
 1940. On the Eastern Front, forces under his
 command took
 SEVASTOPOL but failed to take
 Leningrad or 
STALINGRAD, and then began the long
 retreat that would end in 
BERLIN. He did not stay
 in command that long; in March 1944 he was relieved
 of his command by Adolf
 HITLER. He was later
 convicted of war crimes and imprisoned for 4 years.


Mao Tse-tung, the old-style name of Chinese leader


 MAO ZEDONG.

Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung; 1893-1976), the primary
 leader and chief theoretician of communism in
 China, who led the 
COMMUNIST PARTY OF CHINA
 through the
 CHINESE CIVIL WAR to power in 1949,
 was chairman of the
 PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
 until 1959, and chairman of the party for the rest
 of his life. He formed his first Communist group
 shortly after becoming a Marxist in 1920, was
 present at the first congress of the Communist
 party in 1921, and was active in the
 KUOMINTANG
 until the 
SHANGHAI MASSACRE ushered in the
 Communist-Kuomintang split of 1927 and the Chinese
 Civil War. From then on he turned from the former
 Communist urban insurrection strategy to the rural
 base-building strategy that was to take the
 Communists to power 22 years later. He led the
 unsuccessful
 AUTUMN HARVEST UPRISINGS of 1927 and
 subsequently fled, with a few hundred survivors,
 into the Ching-Kang Mountains of western Kiangsi,
 where he and
 ZHU DE turned to building People's
 Liberation Army guerrilla forces in central China.
 From then until 1934 he fought in central China,
 during the guerrilla period and the
 KIANGSI

 SOVIET period. In 1934, surrounded and about to be
 destroyed by stronger Nationalist forces, he
 recommended the flight that became the 
 LONG

 MARCH to northern China. During the course of that
 march he became political leader of the Communist
 party, beginning the process that by the early
 1940s made him undisputed leader of Chinese
 communism. In those years he effectively broke with
 Joseph 
STALIN and the
 COMMUNIST INTERNATIONAL,
 which until the mid-1930s had essentially directed
 Chinese Communist policy. After achievement of
 power in 1949 he became leader of the new Chinese
 government, at first attempting to build a new
 industrial system essentially on the Soviet model,
 and then in 1958 making a sharp break with previous
 policies and attempting to build a new set of urban
 and rural communes that would take China on a


 GREAT LEAP FORWARD. In the mid-1960s he went even
 further, initiating the
 CULTURAL REVOLUTION, with
 its
 RED GUARDS, enormous cultural and physical
 destruction, and virtual deification of Mao. In the
 1970s he went into decline, and moderates led by


 ZHOU ENLAI and
 DENG XIAOPING vied with a faction
 led by Mao's third wife,
 JIANG QING, which was
 later to be named and tried as the
 GANG OF FOUR.


Mapai (Workers' Party), Israeli Social Democratic
 party formed under the leadership of David
 BEN

 GURION in 1930. The Mapai, with its successor, the
 Israel Labor party, formed in 1968, was the Israeli
 ruling party from 1948 to 1977; in the late 1980s
 it was led by Shimon
 PERES.

Maquis, a term describing both individual World War
 II French
 RESISTANCE fighters and guerrilla
 units, although often during that war used to
 describe only units of the London-affiliated French
 Forces of the Interior, or
 FREE FRENCH.

Marcantonio, Vito (1902-54), U.S. congressman from
 East Harlem, in New York City, who was elected to
 the House of Representatives in 1934 as a
 Republican, on Fiorello
 LAGUARDIA'S Fusion
 ticket, and thereafter on the American Labor party
 ticket. Marcantonio generally followed U.S.
 Communist party policies, although he was not an
 avowed Communist, and became a highly controversial
 figure during the early years of the
 COLD WAR and
 the onset of the
 MCCARTHY period.

March on Rome, the tactic used by Benito


 MUSSOLINI to seize power in Italy in late October
 1922. On October 24 his Fascist party organized a


 BLACKSHIRT MARCH ON ROME, as the key element in a
 nationwide seizure of power. King
 VICTOR EMMANUEL

 III and the Italian army refused to oppose the
 Blackshirts; instead, the king asked Mussolini to
 become premier, and he took power on October 31.

March on Washington (August 28, 1963), a meeting of
 an estimated 250,000 civil rights advocates at the
 Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC, at which Martin
 Luther
 KING, Jr., delivered his celebrated
 I

 HAVE A DREAM speech. The meeting was a major event
 in the development of the American
 CIVIL RIGHTS

 MOVEMENT.

Marconi, Guglielmo (1874-1937), Italian physicist
 who sent the first transoceanic
 RADIO message in
 1901, using the
 WIRELESS telegraphy he had been
 developing over several years-first in Italy, then
 in Britain-work for which he was awarded the 1909
 Nobel Prize for Physics. After World War I, he
 focused on
 MICROWAVES.

Marco Polo Bridge Incident (July 7, 1937), an armed
 clash between Chinese and Japanese troops at the
 Marco Polo Bridge, near Peking, that began the


 SINO-JAPANESE WAR.

Marcos, Ferdinand Edralin (1917-89), much-decorated
 World War II Filipino anti-Japanese guerrilla
 fighter, who went into politics after the war. He
 was a Liberal party member of the House of
 Representatives, 1949-59, and of the Senate,
 1959-65; as Nationalist party candidate, he won the
 presidency in 1965. After his reelection in 1969,
 as continuing Moro and Communist-led insurgencies
 strengthened and Liberal party support grew, he
 turned toward repression of his political
 opponents, jailing thousands in 1971; from
 September 1972 he openly ruled under martial law,
 and thereafter by decree. He imprisoned Benigno
 Aquino, along with other Liberal party leaders, in
 1972, held him until 1980, and then let him go
 abroad. He was widely accused of ordering the
 assassination of Aquino as he stepped off his
 airplane on his return to the Philippines in 1983.
 Marcos ordered a presidential election in February
 1986; when he lost that election to Corazon


 AQUINO, he attempted to hold power by means of
 electoral fraud. He was forced to flee into exile
 on February 25, 1986. During the late 1980s
 attempts were mounted to prosecute him for
 financial malfeasance.

Marcuse, Herbert (1898-1979), German philosopher,
 who left Nazi Germany and settled in the United
 States in 1934. A Marxist with Freudian leanings,
 he posited the need for revolutionary change, and
 his thinking became important to many in the
 NEW

 LEFT movements of the 1960s.

Mariel boat people, the estimated 114,000 Cubans
 allowed in 1981 to leave Cuba for Florida, through
 the Cuban port of Mariel. Most were refugees, much
 like the hundreds of thousands who had emigrated to
 the United States in earlier years, many them
 leaving Cuba to join their families in the United
 States. Several thousand freed criminals also were
 allowed to emigrate; some continued their criminal
 careers in the United States.

Mariner, U.S. series of unmanned spacecraft to
 explore nearby planets, in 1962 and 1967 flying by
 and gathering data on
 VENUS and in 1964 and 1969
 photographing the surface of
 MARS and making
 thermal maps of it, using
 INFRARED RADIATION. 

 MARINER 9, placed into orbit around Mars in
 November 1971, revealed much new information about
 the planet, its moons, and the possibility of its
 supporting life. In 1974  Mariner 10 flew by Venus
 to reach the region of Mercury, where it went into
 orbit.

Mark I (automatic sequence control calculator),
 early electromechanical calculator developed at
 Harvard University, 1939-44, by Howard Aiken,
 working with IBM. Used for calculations during the
 war, it was a precursor to such all-electronic
 computers as the
 COLOSSUS and 
ENIAC.

Market Garden, Operation (September 1944), code
 name for the failed Allied limited offensive aimed
 at penetrating the
 SIEGFRIED LINE; it included
 the Battle of
 ARNHEM.

Marne, First Battle of the (September 5-10, 1914),
 battle that developed when German armies advancing
 south turned to take Paris, rather than attempting
 to sweep west and south to envelop the French and
 British armies, as envisaged in the
 SCHLIEFFEN

 PLAN. This enabled the French to strike and
 envelop the German right flank, and then to engage
 and stop the entire German offensive with the aid
 of their Paris reserves; the troops were brought
 from Paris to the front in any vehicles available,
 including a fleet of taxicabs. Paris was saved, the
 entire German advance was stopped, and the
 Schlieffen Plan had ultimately failed. Instead,
 both armies fought a series of battles along the
 Aisne and Yser Rivers and then to the North Sea, as
 they developed the lines of fortifications they
 would hold for the next 4 years. Attacking all
 along the front, the French failed to break through
 the German lines; at
 YPRES, German and British
 forces suffered huge casualties, but the Germans
 failed to break through to take the Channel ports.
 Had the Germans won the Marne battle, the course of
 World War I and of world history might have been
 very different. Instead, 4 years of
 TRENCH

 WARFARE in the west were to bring millions of war
 dead and the eventual defeat of Germany and its
 allies.

Marne, Second Battle of (July 15-August 5, 1918),
 this set of battles began as the fifth and last
 German offensive of 1918, as German armies attacked
 French and American forces in Champagne, reaching
 and crossing the Marne in the first few days of the
 offensive but then being forced to withdraw. Allied
 forces then went over to the offensive, regaining
 much of the ground that had been lost in the five
 German offensives of 1918. The Allies kept the
 initiative for the balance of the war.

Mars, planetary target of U.S.S.R and U.S. space
 probes. In 1965 Mariner 4 flew by Mars, as did
 Mariner 6 and 7 in 1969 and 1971, sending back
 photographs of craters on its surface. In May 1971
 the Soviet Union sent aloft Mars 1 and  2, placing
 them in orbit and landing capsules that briefly
 sent back
 TELEVISION signals. The same month, the
 U.S. sent  Mariner 9 to Mars, placing it in orbit
 and transmitting television pictures and other
 data. In 1974 a Soviet craft crashed while
 attempting a landing on Mars; two U.S. craft,
 Viking 1 and 2, successfully landed there in 1976,
 and Viking 1 broadcast data for more than 5 years.
 Maps, photographs, and other resulting information
 gave a much more accurate picture of Mars and its
 moons, giving a negative (though not definitive)
 answer to the continuing question of whether Mars
 supports life. In 1988, the U.S.S.R. sent two
 craft, Phobos 1 and  Phobos 2, toward Mars, but
 both failed in early 1989 before they could
 complete their mission.

Marshall, George Catlett (1880-1959), U.S. officer,
 who saw service in World War I, was General John
 J.
 PERSHING'S aide for 5 years after that war,
 and in 1939 became chief of staff of the U.S. Army.
 In that position he organized the American run-up
 to participation in the war that had already
 started in Europe, including cooperation with the
 British. He was chief organizer of the two-front,
 Europe-first strategy that was the keystone of
 overall Allied strategy throughout the war, and
 chose the American military leaders of the war,
 including Dwight D.
 EISENHOWER to lead the


 NORMANDY invasion. He became a five-star general
 in December 1944. After the war he headed the U.S.
 mission to China, November 1945-January 1947, which
 slowed but did not stop the
 CHINESE CIVIL WAR. In
 February 1947 he became secretary of state, in that
 position developing the huge American aid program
 that helped rebuild postwar Western Europe-the
 
MARSHALL PLAN.

Marshall, Thomas Riley (1854-1925), U.S. lawyer and
 Democratic governor of Indiana (1909-13), who was
 twice Woodrow
 WILSON'S vice-president (1913-21);
 he was credited with originating the phrase "What
 this country needs is a really good five-cent
 cigar!" during a long, slow Senate debate on
 national priorities.

Marshall, Thurgood (1908- ) U.S. lawyer, on the
 staff of the
 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE

 ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE (NAACP) from 1936
 and head of its legal staff, 1940-62. In that
 position he became the leading civil rights lawyer
 in the United States, fighting and winning a series
 of major legal battles, the most notable being the
 landmark school desegregation case, the 1954
 BROWN

 V. BOARD OF EDUCATION OF TOPEKA, KANSAS. In 1962
 President John F.
 KENNEDY named him a second
 Circuit Court of Appeals judge. In 1965 President
 Lyndon B.
 JOHNSON named him solicitor-general of
 the United States, and in 1967 Johnson appointed
 him the first Black member of the U.S. Supreme
 Court. On the Court, Marshall continued on his
 established course, becoming a leading member of
 the liberal wing of the Court, in the liberal
 majority during his early years and in the liberal
 minority as times and the Court changed.

Marshall mission, the failed 1945-47 attempt by
 General George C.
 MARSHALL, acting for U.S.
 president Harry S.
 TRUMAN, to mediate the


 CHINESE CIVIL WAR, which had resumed after the
 defeat of Japan in World War II. He did negotiate a
 truce in January 1947, but it had completely broken
 down by July 1947, and he left China in January
 1948.

Marshall Plan, a U.S. program in aid of European
 post-World War II reconstruction and economic
 redevelopment, put forward by Secretary of State
 George C.
 MARSHALL in June 1947. It generated
 massive gifts and some loans to many non-Communist
 European nations in the late 1940s and early 1950s,
 and at the same time was a powerful tool in support
 of American
 COLD WAR and
 CONTAINMENT aims.

Martov, Julius (1873-1923), Russian Marxist who
 worked with
 LENIN from 1895 but broke with him in
 1903, becoming a leader of the
 MENSHEVIK faction
 in the Russian socialist movement. He fled into
 exile after his party was outlawed in 1920.

Mary Rose, Henry VIII's flagship, which sank in
 Britain's Portsmouth Harbor in 1545 and was raised
 in 1982 in a massive exercise in underwater
 archeology. The remains found on board were
 preserved and later displayed.

Masaryk, Jan (1886-1948), Czech diplomat, the son
 of Tomas 
MASARYK and minister to Great Britain,
 1925-38. He resigned in 1938, after the
 MUNICH

 AGREEMENT, and was foreign minister of the
 London-based Czech government-in-exile 1941-45, in
 that period also becoming a widely known
 broadcaster. He was Czech foreign minister,
 1945-48, staying on for a little while after the
 Communist coup. On March 10, 1948, he fell to his
 death from a window in the foreign ministry
 building in Prague; whether it was murder, suicide,
 or an accident is unknown.

Masaryk, Tomas Garrigue (1850-1937), Czech
 philosopher, leader of the Czech independence
 movement, and first president of Czechoslovakia.
 From 1891 he worked within Austria-Hungary, in
 parliament 1891-1893 and 1907-14, and was a leading
 spokesman for Czech and other national groups
 throughout the period. He headed the London-based
 Czech National Council 1914-17, and went to Russia
 in 1917 to organize the
 CZECH LEGION, coming out
 through the United States in 1918. He returned home
 to become president of Czechoslovakia, 1918-35,
 retiring because of ill health. Jan
 MASARYK was
 his son.

maser (
Microwave 
Amplification by 
Stimulated
 
Emission of 
Radiation), device that produces an
 intense, concentrated beam of
 RADIO waves
 (originally high-frequency
 MICROWAVES), much as
 a
 LASER produces an intense, concentrated beam of
 light; first built in 1954 by a U.S. team led by
 physicist Charles Hard Townes. Its best-known use
 is probably in
 ATOMIC CLOCKS. Masers also have
 been found in the universe, brief intense signals
 produced from the gaseous clouds around newly found
 stars, and from 1981 they have been used to measure
 astronomical distances.

massive retaliation, a nuclear age theory
 postulating that the way to respond to any direct
 or indirect attack on one of the two superpowers,
 its friends, or its client states, is to promise
 convincingly to mount full-scale nuclear
 retaliation on the author of the attack. The theory
 was soon invalidated by events, as neither
 superpower proved in fact willing to mount such an
 attack and run the risk of possibly
 humanity-destroying nuclear war.

Masters, William Howell (1915- ), gynecologist, and
 Virginia Eshelma N Johnson (1925- ), psychologist,
 U.S. sex researchers who in 1966 published the
 ground-breaking book, Human Sexual Response. Their
 best-selling, highly regarded work drew on
 controversial firsthand laboratory study of sexual
 activity at their Reproductive Biology Research
 Foundation in St. Louis, Missouri.

Masurian Lakes, First Battle of the (September
 9-14, 1914), World War I battle in which the German
 armies of General Paul von
 HINDENBURG, after
 destroying the Russian Second Army at
 TANNENBERG
 in late August, moved north against General Paul
 Rennenkampf's Russian First Army. The battle at the
 Masurian Lakes was a second East Prussian disaster
 for the Russian army, which lost an estimated
 125,000-150,000 men, though Rennenkampf was able to
 save most of his command in a precipitate retreat.


Masurian Lakes, Second Battle of (February 7-21,
 1915), World War I battle that was the climax of
 the German Eastern Front winter offensive of 1915,
 in which attacking German armies encircled a
 Russian army corps, taking 90,000 prisoners, and
 forcing the balance of the defending Russians to
 retreat.

Mata Hari (Margaretha Geertruida Zelle; 1876-1917),
 Dutch dancer who was executed as a German spy by
 the French, October 15, 1917. The World War I case,
 with its considerable sexual connotations, is still
 a cause celebre, generating much media and literary
 attention.

Matsushita, Konosuke (1894-1989), Japanese
 industrialist, founder of the Matsushita Electric
 Industrial Company in 1918, and a leader in the
 development of Japanese paternalistic industrial
 relations practices. As a member of the
 ZAIBATSU
 who played a substantial role in developing
 Japanese militarism, he was barred from major
 commercial activity during the early postwar
 period. He was allowed to resume his previous
 positions in 1948, and thereafter once again became
 a leading Japanese industrialist.

Matteotti, Giacomo (1885-1924), Italian socialist
 and anti-fascist member of parliament who, on June
 10, 1924, was murdered by the fascists for opposing
 them and exposing fascist election frauds.
 Mussolini survived the ensuing political crisis,
 emerging from it the unchallengeable leader of
 fascist Italy, having effectively intimidated and
 thereby silenced his opponents.

Mau Mau Uprising (1952-56), Kenyan guerrilla war,
 pitting nationalist guerrilla members of the Mau
 Mau Society, drawn mainly from the Kikuyu people,
 against the British army. Armed actions accompanied
 the mounting campaign for Kenyan independence,
 which began in 1945 with the end of World War II.
 By 1952, large-scale guerrilla attacks on British
 plantations and settlements were occurring
 throughout the country. The British responded with
 substantial military actions against the Mau Mau,
 the Kikuyu, and the national movement, including
 the imprisonment of Jomo
 KENYATTA. The guerrilla
 war continued until early 1956, ending with Mau Mau
 defeat as guerrilla attacks subsided. Kenyatta was
 widely described as the arch-terrorist of the time,
 although he denied such charges. He remained
 imprisoned until 1961, ultimately emerging to
 become president of the Kenyan republic.

Mauritania (Islamic Republic of Mauritania), until
 1958 a French protectorate, then gaining internal
 autonomy and on November 28, 1960, becoming an
 independent state.

Mauritius, until 1968 a British colony; it became a
 democratic independent state and
 COMMONWEALTH
 member on March 12, 1968.

Maurras, Charles Marie Photius (1868-1952), French
 writer and editor who founded the rightist
 ACTION

 FRANCAISE group in 1899. He collaborated with the
 Nazis during World War II and was sentenced to life
 imprisonment after the war.

May, Alan Nunn (1911- ), British atomic physicist,
 who became a Soviet spy during World War II,
 passing atomic energy information to the Soviet
 Union until his exposure and imprisonment in 1946.


May 4th Movement, Chinese student protest
 demonstrations against the pro-Japanese provisions
 of the
 VERSAILLES treaty, that began in Peking on
 May 4, 1919, and subsequently sparked
 demonstrations, strikes, and boycotts throughout
 the country. A new youth-oriented Chinese
 nationalist movement had been developing for
 several years, and the demonstrations served to
 focus that movement. Its young leaders were to
 become the leaders of both the
 KUOMINTANG and
 the
 COMMUNIST PARTY OF CHINA in the years ahead.


May 30th Movement, series of antiforeign
 demonstrations that swept China following the
 killing of 13 Chinese demonstrators on May 30,
 1925, by British troops in Shanghai. More than 50


 WHAMPOA MILITARY ACADEMY cadets also were killed
 during an armed clash on June 23, with British and
 French marines. The demonstrations lasted until
 early 1926.

Mayaguez Incident (May 12-14, 1975), a Cambodian
 gunboat's capture of the U.S. merchant ship
 
MAYAGUEZ and its crew of 39 in international
 waters approximately 60 miles off the Cambodian
 coast. After negotiations failed, President Gerald


 FORD authorized a U.S. Marine rescue operation:
 air attacks on Cambodian naval vessels and
 airfields, and helicopter attacks on Tang Island,
 where the ship was being held. The Cambodians
 released the American crew in a fishing boat while
 the attack was in progress.

Mboya, Thomas Joseph (1930-69), Kenyan labor and
 independence movement leader, who was general
 secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labor 1953-63,
 a founder of the Kenya African National Union
 (KANU) in 1960, and minister for economic planning
 and development in Jomo
 KENYATTA'S first
 republican government. He was widely regarded as
 Kenyatta's political heir apparent until his 1969
 assassination in Nairobi.

Mc: See 
MAC.

Mead, Margaret (1901-78), U.S. anthropologist,
 whose work in preindustrial, or "primitive,"
 cultures focused on psychoanalytically based
 inquiry into comparative sexual practices, as
 influenced by cultural sexual and child-rearing
 practices. Her published works, such as The Coming
 of Age in Samoa (1928), were popular and widely
 circulated, contributing to the development of new
 U.S. attitudes toward sexual diversity.

Meany, George (1894-1980), U.S. plumber, who became
 a trade union official and in 1952 president of the
 
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR (AFL). He brought
 the 
CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (CIO)
 and the AFL together into the merged AFL-CIO in
 1955, and was first president of the new
 organization. He also was a vice-president of the
 International Confederation of Free Trade Unions,
 and a U.S. delegate to the 
UNITED NATIONS General
 Assembly.

Mecham, Evan (1924- ), Arizona automobile dealer
 and sharply conservative Republican governor of
 Arizona, from his election in 1986 until his
 impeachment in February 1988. He was convicted and
 removed from office on April 4 by the
 Republican-dominated state senate, and later
 acquitted in a criminal trial of perjury and
 money-laundering charges. In office he had been an
 extremely controversial figure, his comments on
 minority groups isolating him even from his own
 party, and had been facing a massive recall
 campaign before his impeachment.

Medawar, Peter Brian (1915-87), Brazilian-born
 British-Lebanese zoologist, who worked out the
 mechanism that causes grafts or 
TRANSPLANTS to be
 rejected by the recipient's body. He was following
 through on Australian immunologist Macfarlane
 Burnet's idea that the graft or transplant was
 regarded as "foreign" by the body's immune system
 and hence to be destroyed, an idea for which they
 shared the 1960 Nobel Prize for Physiology or
 Medicine. Medawar's work was basic to the modern
 development of organ and tissue transplants,
 opening the way for selective immunosuppressive
 drugs; it also explained the mechanism behind
 auto-immune diseases, in which the body mistakenly
 attacks its own tissues.

Medelln cartel, a major drug-growing and drug
 dealing syndicate, powerfully placed throughout
 Colombia and neighboring countries, named after the
 Colombian city of Medelln. During the late 1980s
 the cartel grossed an estimated $6-7 billion per
 year, mainly from U.S. cocaine and marijuana sales,
 while successfully resisting Colombian and U.S.
 attempts to combat the drug trade.

Medicare and Medicaid, U.S. social welfare
 programs, introduced as part of President Lyndon B.
 
JOHNSON's 
GREAT SOCIETY program, in the Mills
 Act of 1965, and further developed thereafter.
 Medicare provides for a federally subsidized system
 of voluntary health insurance for those over 65.
 Medicaid provides poor people with
 state-administered, federally subsidized medical
 care.

Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich (1925- ), Soviet
 historian and dissenter, whose first major work,
 Let History Judge (1971 in English), was an attack
 on the crimes and repression of the Stalinist
 period; he was later expelled from the 
COMMUNIST

 PARTY for his criticism. He also wrote-with his
 twin brother, Zhores 
MEDVEDEV-A Question of
 Madness (1971 in English), which told the story of
 Zhores' imprisonment in a psychiatric institution
 and exposed such methods of imprisoning and
 punishing dissenters. He was reinstated to
 Communist Party membership in the 
GORBACHEV era.


Medvedev, Vadim Andreevich (1929- ), Soviet
 economist, political theoretician, and Communist
 Party official (deputy propaganda chief of the
 Central Committee 1970-78) who was national science
 and technology department head until his surprise
 1988 elevation to the Politburo. He then became
 ideology secretary, second only to 
GORBACHEV in
 the Soviet Union.

Medvedev, Zhores Aleksandrovich (1925- ), Soviet
 biologist, whose attacks on Trofim 
LYSENKO's
 government-supported views on genetics led to his
 imprisonment in a psychiatric hospital, from which
 he was released only after international and Soviet
 protest. In A Question of Madness (1971), written
 with his twin brother, Roy 
MEDVEDEV, he exposed
 to the world the use of psychiatric detention to
 silence dissenters. While conducting research in
 London in 1973, his citizenship was revoked, so he
 remained in the West, continuing his critical works
 and reporting in 1979 on the previously
 unacknowledged nuclear disaster at 
BLAGOVESCHENSK
 in the Urals in 1958.

Meese, Edwin, III (1931- ), U.S. lawyer, who became
 a key aide to Ronald 
REAGAN when he was governor
 of California (1967-75), and went with him to
 Washington in 1981. Meese served as counsellor to
 the president, 1981-85, and U.S. attorney-general,
 1985-88. After charges of possible involvement in
 the 
WEDTECH case, Special Prosecutor James C.
 McKay investigated Meese for 14 months while top
 Justice Department aides resigned to protest
 Meese's continuing tenure. Meese resigned on July
 5, 1988, after McKay's report had been filed but
 before its contents were revealed. McKay's report
 was made public on July 18, 1988; it alleged that
 Meese had "probably violated the criminal law" four
 times while in office, but that no basis for
 prosecution existed.

Megiddo, Battle of (September 19-21, 1918), the
 final battle of the Middle East campaigns during
 World War I. 
ALLENBY's British forces broke
 Turkish defensive positions near Jaffa, routed the
 Turkish forces, and pursued them through the Jordan
 valley, ultimately taking Damascus, Beirut, Homs,
 and Aleppo. Their advance ended with the
 Allied-Turkish armistice of October 30, 1918.

Mehendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva (1920-72), Nepalese
 king (1956-72), who instituted democracy with the
 constitution of 1959, canceled the new constitution
 in 1960, and imprisoned the elected leaders of
 Nepal; he banned all political parties and ruled as
 an absolute monarch. In 1962 he set up nonparty
 representative assemblies, but in effect continued
 to hold all power until his death. He was succeeded
 by his son, 
BIRENDA BIR BIKRAM SHAH DEVA.

MEIN KAMPF, a two-volume work by Adolf 
HITLER,
 the first volume written in prison following the
 Munich 
BEER HALL PUTSCH of 1923, the second in
 1925. The book was central to Nazi theory and
 practice, sounding the racist, anti-Jewish, and
 nationalist themes that would take Hitler to power
 and generate World War II.

Meir, Golda (Golda Meyerson; 1898-1978),
 American-Israeli Zionist, who emigrated from the
 United States to Israel at the age of 23, and in
 1928 became a leader of the Palestine Jewish labor
 federation, the Histadrut; she was also active in
 the socialist 
MAPAI party. In 1946 she became
 head of the political department of the Jewish
 Agency for Palestine and in 1948 was Israel's first
 ambassador to the Soviet Union. She was labor
 minister 1949-56, foreign minister 1956-66, and
 prime minister 1969-74, resigning after widespread
 criticism of the government's lack of preparation
 for the 
YOM KIPPUR WAR (FOURTH ARAB-ISRAELI WAR;

 OCTOBER WAR) of 1973.

Mellon, Andrew William (1855-1937), U.S. banker
 who, as head of Pittsburgh's Mellon National Bank,
 played a substantial role in the development of
 many major U.S. companies; he was secretary of the
 treasury from 1921 to 1932, through the boom of the
 1920s, the 
CRASH of 1929, and the first years of
 the 
GREAT DEPRESSION. A conservative, he believed
 the U.S. economic system to be essentially
 self-regulating, and made no attempt to limit the
 boom and its accompanying speculative practices;
 after the Crash, he tried to revive the economy
 with modest, unsuccessful attempts to restimulate
 business.

melting pot, phrase coined by Israel Zangwill in
 act 1 of his play The Melting Pot (1908); from
 "America is God's crucible, the great melting pot
 where all the races of Europe are melting and
 reforming!"

Memel, Lithuanian seacoast city that had been part
 of Germany before the German defeat in World War I;
 it was then disputed by Poland, the Soviet Union,
 and Lithuania, until finally taken by Lithuania in
 1923. Nazi Germany forced Lithuania to cede the
 area back to Germany in 1939; it became part of the
 Soviet Union after World War II.

Memorial Day Massacre, an alternate name for the
 Memorial Day 1937 
LITTLE STEEL MASSACRE.

Mendes-France, Pierre (1907-82), French lawyer and
 socialist, in the national assembly 1932-58, with a
 World War II break in which he was imprisoned by
 the 
VICHY government and escaped to fly for the
 
FREE FRENCH. He opposed the 
INDOCHINA WAR; when
 he became premier in June 1954, he quickly ended
 the war. He was premier only until February 1955,
 and was not in office during the De Gaulle years.
 Briefly serving in the assembly again during
 1967-68, he continued to be an active socialist
 leader.

Mengele, Joseph (1911- ), Nazi doctor and mass
 murderer who participated in the killing of an
 estimated 60,000 "defectives," beginning in 1940;
 as chief medical officer at 
AUSCHWITZ, he was
 directly responsible for choosing many of those who
 were to be immediately murdered on arrival at the
 death camp. He also engaged in willfully cruel
 experimentation, using human subjects. He is
 thought to have escaped to South America after the
 war and was sought as a major war criminal for
 decades. His death has been reported on many
 occasions; there is a small possibility that he is
 still at large.

Mengistu, Haile Mariam (1937- ), Ethiopian officer,
 who was a leader of the army coup that deposed
 Haile 
SELASSIE in 1974. Mengistu took full power
 after factional infighting in February 1977, ruling
 as dictator and developing a socialist state on the
 most conservative Soviet model, with substantial
 Soviet and Cuban military and other material
 assistance. He established the Workers' party in
 1984, with himself as secretary-general.

Menon, Vengalil Krishnan Krishna (1897-1974),
 Indian lawyer, editor, nationalist, socialist, and
 diplomat, who practiced law in Great Britain from
 1925 and was there secretary of the India League
 1927-47, and a key Indian independence movement
 representative. With independence, he became Indian
 high commissioner in London, 1947-53; he was
 India's 
UNITED NATIONS ambassador 1952-60, and
 Indian defense minister 1957-62. He resigned his
 cabinet post after Indian defeat in the
 
CHINESE-INDIAN BORDER WAR of 1962, continuing in
 the Indian parliament until his death.

Mensheviks, Russian word for the "minority," a name
 given by the 
BOLSHEVIK wing of the Russian
 Social-Democratic party to the somewhat more
 moderate major portion of the party at the party
 congress of 1903, when the Bolsheviks won votes on
 certain intraparty issues. The Mensheviks, led by
 Georgi 
PLEKHANOV and Julius 
MARTOV, were the
 main body of the Social-Democratic party; after the
 Bolsheviks split away to form their own party in
 1912, the Mensheviks were the party. They were
 suppressed by the Bolsheviks after the 
OCTOBER

 REVOLUTION.

Menzies, Robert Gordon (1894-1978), Australian
 lawyer and conservative, a member of the Victoria
 legislature 1929-34 and of parliament 1934-66. He
 was United Australia party prime minister 1939-41
 and Liberal prime minister 1949-66, a period of
 massive immigration, strong commercial development
 at home, and coordination of Australian and U.S.
 policies in southeast Asia. He took Australia into
 the 
KOREAN and 
VIETNAM WARS, and also
 participated in regional anti-Communist military
 alliances.

Mercury, series of U.S. spacecraft that first put
 Americans into orbit around the Earth. In
 suborbital flights, Alan 
SHEPARD flew in the
 Mercury craft Freedom 7 on May 5, 1961 and Virgil
 (Gus) 
GRISSOM flew in Liberty Bell 7 on July 21,
 1961. Then on February 20, 1962, John 
GLENN had a
 5-hour, three-orbit flight in Friendship 7. These
 Mercury flights, and the 
GEMINI ones that
 followed, helped prepare for the 
APOLLO landings
 on the Moon.

Mercury, planetary target of Soviet and American
 space probes, notably by Mariner 10 in 1974, which
 flew by the planet several times.

mercy killing, alternate term for 
EUTHANASIA.

Meredith, James Howard (1933- ), U.S. student, who
 in 1961 applied for admission to the University of
 Mississippi, was rejected because he was Black, and
 then, with the help of the 
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION

 FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE (NAACP),
 used legal process to force admission, in a case
 finally decided by the Supreme Court. Because the
 state of Mississippi refused to allow him to
 register, he was enrolled under federal protection,
 after President John F. 
KENNEDY had federalized
 state National Guard troops and sent them in to end
 rioting, which killed two and injured many more. In
 1966 Meredith was shot while marching to encourage
 Mississippi voter registration, but he survived to
 complete the march later, with thousands of
 supporters.

Mers el-Kebir sinkings (July 3-4, 1940), early
 World War II attack by British warships on French
 naval units at Mers el-Kebir, Algeria, which had
 refused either to join the 
ALLIES or to take
 themselves out of the war by sinking or
 demilitarizing their ships. The British sank three
 French battleships at Oran. At Alexandria, Egypt, a
 French squadron responded by demilitarizing the
 ships.

Messerschmitt, Willy (1898-1978), German engineer
 and aircraft designer, who from 1923 designed and
 built a wide range of 
AIRPLANES, notably the
 Me-109, which set a world speed record in 1939. The
 Me-109 was the 
LUFTWAFFE's basic plane during
 World War II, supplemented by Messerschmitt bombers
 and other fighters. In his later career,
 Messerschmitt produced satellites and missiles.

Messina earthquake (December 28, 1908), a series of
 Sicilian and Italian earthquakes that caused an
 estimated 100,000-150,000 deaths, destroying
 Messina and many smaller towns and cities.

Metaxas, Ioannis (1871-1941), Greek officer and
 World War I army chief of staff whose fortunes were
 closely tied to those of the monarchy. He became
 premier in April 1936, took power as dictator in
 August, and ruled Greece until his death in January
 1941.

Meuse-Argonne Offensive (September 26-November 11,
 1918), World War I push in which U.S. and French
 forces attacked weakening German forces on the
 Meuse and in the Argonne Forest, and ultimately
 reached Sedan, stopping their drive only with the
 armistice, November 11, 1918.

Mexican earthquakes of 1985 (September 19-20,
 1985), two massive earthquakes, one of them
 measuring 8.1 on the 
RICHTER SCALE, that struck
 Mexico City and portions of southern Mexico,
 killing an estimated 5,000-10,000 people, injuring
 tens of thousands more, and leaving hundreds of
 thousands homeless. Hundreds of large buildings at
 the center of Mexico City were leveled, as the area
 proved particularly vulnerable to earthquake
 shocks.

Mexican Revolution (1910-20), a revolution and
 civil war that began as an armed insurrection
 against the regime of Porfirio 
DAZ in 1910 and
 ultimately became a long civil war, with many
 leaders and factions, that cost an estimated l
 million lives. Daz arrested the opposing
 presidential candidate, Francisco 
MADERO, in 1910
 and had himself declared winner of the presidential
 race; Madero jumped bail, organized an armed
 insurrection, and took power in May 1911. Some
 Madero supporters, including Emiliano 
ZAPATA,
 soon split with Madero on several issues-but
 especially on the question of the speed of land
 reform-and civil war followed. In 1913 Madero's
 Mexico City commandant, Victoriano 
HUERTA,
 organized a coup, executed Madero, and became
 dictator, but almost immediately he lost the civil
 war to the forces led by Venustiano 
CARRANZA.
 Carranza then sucessfully pursued the civil war,
 defeating the forces of Francisco 
VILLA and
 Zapata. Zapata's forces retreated to their home
 bases in the south and resisted all government
 attempts to subdue them until Zapata's
 assassination in 1919. Villa's forces retreated to
 their home bases in the north, in 1916 attacking
 Columbus, New Mexico, precipitating a U.S. invasion
 of northern Mexico, which ended in early 1917.
 Carranza was assassinated in 1920 by the forces of
 his own general, Alvaro 
OBREGON, who had led a
 successful insurrection against the Carranza
 government. Obregon then became president,
 consolidated his power, and ended the civil war.

Mexican-U.S. border war (1916-17), conflict that
 began on March 15, 1916, when Mexican guerrilla
 forces led by Francisco 
VILLA attacked Columbus,
 New Mexico. A U.S. force of an estimated 10,000
 men, led by John J. 
PERSHING, then invaded
 northern Mexico, seeking but not finding Villa and
 instead fighting several small-scale engagements
 with Mexican regulars attempting to limit their
 operations. U.S. forces withdrew in February 1917.


Mexico City explosion (November 19, 1984),
 explosion of a gasoline truck that set off a much
 larger explosion at a natural gas plant in Mexico
 City. An estimated 450 people were killed and
 31,000 made homeless.

MGM Grand Hotel fire (November 21, 1980), a fire in
 a large new high-rise hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada,
 that had opened without smoke detectors and
 sprinklers in operating condition; 84 died and
 500-600 more were injured.

MIAs, popular shorthand for missing in action;
 generally used in connection with U.S. troops
 missing in action during the 
VIETNAM WAR, some of
 whom may have been held as North Vietnamese
 prisoners; these were often called 
POWS/MIAS.

Michelson, Albert Abraham (1852-1931), U.S.
 physicist, who in 1920 first measured the diameter
 of a star, Betelgeuse, using a self-designed
 interferometer in which the canceling out or
 "interference" of some lines in rays of light
 allowed for measurement. For his earlier
 work-notably his 1878 measurement of the speed of
 light, refined in 1926-Michelson was the first
 American to win the Nobel Prize for Physics, in
 1907.

microchip, popular name for the 
MICROPROCESSOR
 computer chip.

microprocessor, 
COMPUTER central processing unit,
 the formerly room-size set of heat-producing vacuum
 tubes much reduced and placed on a single silicon
 chip. Developed in 1971 by Marcian "Ted" Hoff of
 Intel, microprocessors-popularly called chips or
 microchips-made possible the miniaturization that
 led to inexpensive 
PERSONAL COMPUTERS.

microwave, type of high-frequency 
RADIATION,
 widely used in 
RADAR and in long-distance
 telephone and 
TELEVISION transmission. In 1921,
 in Britain, Albert W. Hull developed a
 microwave-producing 
ELECTRON TUBE called a
 magnetron, a significant aid in radar operations
 during World War II. Concern about the biological
 effects of microwaves have caused many countries to
 set occupational standards for exposure to them.
 Despite such concerns, microwave ovens, first
 patented in 1945, became extremely popular, with
 several million in use in the United States alone
 by the 1980s. Radio astronomers found microwaves
 among 
COSMIC RAYS, giving support to the 
BIG

 BANG THEORY of the universe's origin. Microwaves
 are also used in 
MASERS (
Microwave or
 
Molecular 
Amplification by 
Stimulated
 
Emission of 
Radiation). From the 1980s
 scientists were experimenting with fuelless
 
AIRPLANES, powered by microwave beams sent up
 from the ground.

MIDAS (
MIssile 
Defense 
Alert 
System), U.S.
 military surveillance 
SATELLITE system, the first
 launched on May 22, 1961.

Middle Congo, the former name of 
CONGO (People's
 Republic of the Congo), which was a French colony
 until 1958, and became an independent state on
 August 15, 1960.

Middletown, classic study of middle-class America,
 published in 1937 by Robert Staughton 
LYND and
 Helen Merrell 
LYND.

Midway, Battle of (June 4-6, 1942), the decisive
 battle of World War II in the Pacific. The Japanese
 sent a massive invasion fleet, including nine
 battleships and all of Japan's four major aircraft
 carriers, to take Midway Island, planning to later
 engage and defeat the remaining U.S. Pacific fleet,
 which they thought nowhere near Midway. The
 Americans, who had long known the Japanese secret
 communications codes, mobilized their three
 remaining aircraft carriers and a much smaller
 supporting fleet northeast of Midway, hoping to
 gain some advantage from Midway's contingent of
 fighter planes. The Japanese were entirely
 surprised by the U.S. fleet, and lost all four of
 their aircraft carriers; the Americans lost only
 one carrier, the Yorktown. On June 6 the huge
 Japanese fleet headed for home; without air cover,
 it was helpless against carrier attack. The Allies
 were then able to take the offensive in the
 Pacific.

Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig (1886-1969),
 German-American architect, a leader in the
 theoretical development of the International Style
 in the 1920s and early 1930s, who directed the
 Bauhaus from 1930 to 1933, and put his "less is
 more" theories into practice after emigrating to
 the United States in the late 1930s. Two of his
 most influential works were his Chicago high-rise
 glass box apartment houses (1951), and his Seagram
 Building (1958), the latter built in collaboration
 with Philip 
JOHNSON.

Mihajlovic, Draza (1893-1946), Yugoslav officer,
 who had fought with guerrilla units during the
 
BALKAN WARS and in World War I, and who organized
 
CHETNIK guerrilla forces after Germany's conquest
 of Yugoslavia in the spring of 1941. During World
 War II his pro-royalist forces fought German and
 Italian occupying forces, and 
TITO's partisans as
 well, in a three-way war. On the insistence of the
 Soviets at the 
TEHRAN CONFERENCE, Allied support
 of the Chetniks was withdrawn in late 1943 and
 early 1944, amid charges that the Chetniks had
 collaborated with German and Italian occupation
 forces. Mihajlovic was captured by the partisans
 and executed in 1946.

Miki, Takeo (1907-88), Japanese political leader,
 in parliament from 1937, who opposed the growth of
 Japanese militarism in the late 1930s and emerged
 as a leader of the small liberal minority within
 the ruling conservative Liberal-Democratic party.
 He held several cabinet-level posts before becoming
 deputy prime minister in 1972 in the 
TANAKA
 government. He resigned in 1974, as financial
 scandal developed, then became prime minister after
 Tanaka's forced resignation. In 1976, he made the
 decision to pursue the 
LOCKHEED SCANDAL
 investigation and ultimately to prosecute Tanaka.
 Miki lost power in 1976, remaining in parliament
 until 1986.

military-industrial complex, a phrase coined by U.
 S. president Dwight David 
EISENHOWER in his
 farewell address, in which he warned that
 government must guard against the "acquisition of
 unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought,
 by the military-industrial complex."

Milk-Moscone murders (November 27, 1978), the
 shootings of gay San Francisco supervisor Harvey
 Milk and Mayor George Moscone by ex-supervisor Dan
 White. Having resigned from the board of
 supervisors because of financial pressures, White
 had wanted to be reappointed and Moscone had agreed
 to do so. Milk opposed White's return, Moscone
 changed his mind, and White murdered both. A jury
 convicted White of manslaughter, rather than
 murder, because of impaired capacity, a verdict
 sharply protested in San Francisco's gay community,
 which felt that the verdict reflected anti-gay
 sentiment on the part of the jury.

Milken, Michael R., U.S. securities industry figure
 who, during the 1980s headed the 
DREXEL, BURNHAM,

 LAMBERT "junk bond" department. He became the most
 important figure in the junk bond market, through
 which he arranged financing for many of the
 corporate takeovers of the time, while generating
 over $ l billion in personal compensation. In
 December 1988, as part of its settlement of massive
 securities fraud charges, Drexel agreed to fire
 Milken. On March 29, 1989, Milken and two former
 Drexel employees were indicted for allegedly
 committing a series of federal securities-related
 crimes; federal prosecutors said that they intended
 to ask for $ l.8 billion in restitution.

Miller, Richard, a former FBI employee who was
 sentenced to life imprisonment as a Soviet spy in
 1984. Soviet husband-and-wife emigres Svetlana and
 Nikolai Ogorodnikov both pleaded guilty in the same
 case and received long prison sentences. Miller's
 conviction was later overturned on appeal.

Millikan, Robert Adrews (1868-1953), U.S. physicist
 who first measured the charge of an 
ELECTRON,
 helping to confirm both the fundamental 
PLANCK's
 constant and 
EINSTEIN's theories on the
 
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT; he won the 1923 Nobel Prize
 in Physics. In 1925 he gave the name 
COSMIC RAYS
 to 
RADIATION emanating from outer space.

Mills, C. Wright (1916-62), U.S. sociologist, whose
 major interest was in the sociology of power, and
 whose main work, 
THE POWER ELITE (1956),
 described the United States as dominated by a set
 of somewhat overlapping elites. His work
 considerably influenced the thinking of the
 American reformers and radicals of the 1960s.

Mindszenty, Jozsef (1892-1975), Hungarian Roman
 Catholic priest who, as a bishop, was arrested for
 anti-Fascist activities during World War II; he
 became primate of Hungary in 1945 and a cardinal in
 1946. Convicted of treason by the Communist
 government in 1949, he was sentenced to life
 imprisonment but was freed from what had by then
 become house arrest during the 
HUNGARIAN

 REVOLUTION of 1956. After the defeat of the
 revolution he took refuge in the American embassy
 for 15 years, refusing to leave until 1971,
 although he could have done so some years earlier.


Minh, Doung Van ("Big Minh;" 1916- ), Vietnamese
 officer who led the army revolt that deposed 
NGO

 DINH DIEM in 1963, and was himself deposed in
 1964, then fleeing abroad. Returning in 1968, he
 was an unsuccessful presidential candidate in 1971
 and the last president of South Vietnam, for 2 days
 in 1975, before being captured by the North
 Vietnamese.

Minsk campaign of 1944 (June-July 1944), the Soviet
 summer offensive of 1944, late in World War II,
 that trapped and smashed German forces west of the
 Dnieper River. Minsk was retaken, with an estimated
 half million German casualties and prisoners and
 the loss of huge quantities of war materials.

Minton, Sherman (1890-1965), U.S. lawyer, Indiana
 Democratic senator 1935-39, and Seventh Circuit
 U.S. Court of Appeals judge 1941-49. He was
 appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court by President
 Harry S. 
TRUMAN in 1949 and thereafter took a
 generally conservative position on the Court,
 especially in regard to civil liberties matters.

Mir (Peace), modernized version of the U.S.S.R.
 
SOYUZ space station, becoming the first
 permanently manned space station in 1986; built
 under the direction of Valentin 
GLUSHKO. Soviet
 cosmonaut Yuri V. Romanenko spent 326 days in the
 Mir station before returning to Earth in 1987, a
 record later broken by other Soviet cosmonauts.
 Cosmonauts were withdrawn from the Mir station in
 April 1989, presumably because of budget
 constraints.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966), a landmark and sharply
 controversial U.S. Supreme Court decision of June
 13, 1966, that set rules covering the rights of
 criminal suspects. It required police to advise
 prisoners that they have the right to remain
 silent; that anything they say may be used against
 them; that they have the right to have a lawyer
 present while being questioned; that the court will
 appoint a lawyer if they cannot afford one; and
 that they may consult with a lawyer at any point,
 before continuing to speak. The Miranda ruling also
 stated that unless the prosecution could
 demonstrate at the trial that such warnings had
 been administered, and that prisoners had then
 waived such rights and continued to speak, no
 evidence obtained as a result of interrogation
 could be used against them. Later decisions of the
 
BURGER and 
REHNQUIST courts considerably
 diluted the above guarantees.

MIRV (
Multiple 
Independently targetable
 
Reentry 
Vehicle), a single 
MISSILE with many
 nuclear warheads, capable of being aimed to destroy
 many targets in a single flight, and therefore the
 subject of intense attention by nuclear arms
 reduction negotiators.

Miss America resignation, the forced resignation of
 the 1983 Miss America, Vanessa 
WILLIAMS, after
 Penthouse magazine revealed that she had earlier
 posed for nude photographs.

Mississippi civil rights murders (June 1964), the
 killings of civil rights workers James 
CHANEY,
 Andrew 
GOODMAN, and Michael 
SCHWERNER by white
 racists in Neshoba County, Mississippi. In 1967,
 seven men, including Deputy Sheriff Cecil Price and
 
KU KLUX KLAN Imperial Wizard Sam Bowers, were
 convicted of federal civil rights violations in the
 case; no state charges in connection with the
 murders were filed. The murders were memorialized
 in the film Mississippi Burning (1988).

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, dissident
 Mississippi Democratic Party organization led by
 Fannie Lou 
HAMER, Charles 
EVERS, Hodding Carter
 III, and others. In 1964 it challenged as racist
 regular Democratic party delegates to the
 Democratic National Convention, blocked the seating
 of those delegates at the 1968 convention, and was
 itself seated as the regular delegation in 1972,
 thereby sharply altering the balance of forces
 within the Democratic party. The party was never an
 electoral force, although it sponsored some
 candidacies, including the gubernatorial campaign
 of Charles Evers in 1972.

Mississippi River floods (January-February 1937),
 the worst of many 20th-century floods in the
 Mississippi basin, causing an estimated 200-300
 deaths and the evacuation of 600,000-700,000, as
 the river flooded most towns and cities along the
 Ohio and lower Mississippi. Major floods also
 occurred in 1912 and 1927.

Missouri, U.S. battleship on which the Japanese
 surrender in World War II was signed, in Tokyo
 harbor, on September 2, 1945.

Mitchell, John Newton (1913-88), U.S. lawyer, a
 municipal bond specialist, who met Richard M.
 
NIXON when their Wall Street law firms merged in
 1967, managed Nixon's 1968 presidential campaign,
 and became U.S. attorney-general in 1969. As
 attorney-general he mounted a major attack on
 antiwar and civil rights activists, that included
 indiscriminate wiretapping from 1969, prior
 restraint on publication of the 
PENTAGON PAPERS
 in 1971, and widespread harassment of dissenters
 and political opponents. His restraint order was
 stopped by the Supreme Court in 1971; his
 wiretapping activities were curbed by the Supreme
 Court in 1972. While attorney-general, Mitchell was
 deeply involved in the 
DIRTY TRICKS CAMPAIGN and
 the 
WATERGATE COVERUP. He resigned in February
 1972 to head Nixon's reelection campaign, then
 resigned that position in June 1972, allegedly for
 family reasons. On January 1, 1975, he was
 convicted on several Watergate-connected charges,
 subsequently serving 19 months in prison. His wife,
 Martha Beall Jennings Mitchell, whose notable
 penchant for flamboyant public comment was much
 encouraged by the media and enormously destructive
 to John Mitchell, left him in 1974; she died two
 years later.

Mitchell, William "Billy" (1879-1936), U.S.
 officer, who saw service in the Spanish-American
 War and as an aviator and bomber group commander in
 World War I. During the early 1920s he strongly
 advocated the development of air power, especially
 naval air power, and was demoted. In 1925 he
 publicly and very sharply criticized his superiors
 after the loss of the dirigible Shenandoah, and was
 court-martialed, convicted, and resigned. As a
 civilian, he continued to advocate air power,
 raising the possibility of precisely the kind of
 attack that took place at 
PEARL HARBOR in 1941.
 He became a prophet with honor posthumously, a
 medal being voted him by Congress in 1946, 10 years
 after his death.

Mitscher, Marc Andrew (1887-1947), U.S. naval
 officer and pilot who commanded the aircraft
 carrier Hornet at the beginning of World War II and
 at the Battle of 
MIDWAY, in 1944 becoming a
 vice-admiral commanding the Fast Carrier Task Force
 and playing an important role in the liberation of
 the 
PHILIPPINES and the battle for 
OKINAWA.

Mitterand, Francois (1916- ), French socialist
 political leader, who saw service in the
 
RESISTANCE during World War II and entered the
 national assembly in 1946, then served in many
 cabinet-level posts until 1958 and the triumph of
 Gaullism in France. He became president of France
 in 1981 and was reelected in 1988; he pursued
 increasing French participation in the 
EUROPEAN

 COMMUNITY and a moderate socialist program aimed
 at the nationalization of much of finance and
 industry, coupled with an increase in social
 welfare programs.

Mobutu Sese Seko (Joseph Desire Mobuto; 1930- ),
 Congolese officer, who became president of Zaire.
 With independence, in June 1960, he became army
 chief of staff. In September 1960, he briefly took
 control of the country, although the civilian
 government continued to be headed by President
 Joseph 
KASAVUBU. On November 25, 1965, he openly
 took power again, banned all opposition parties,
 set up a one-party authoritarian state, and
 successfully resisted several attempted coups. In
 1971, in an effort to build national identity and
 unity, he Africanized the Congo, changing its name
 to Zaire, and changing many place and personal
 names, including his own, to their African
 equivalents.

Modane troop train crash (December 12, 1917),
 accident that killed 543 people when a troop train
 derailed close to Mt. Cenis tunnel in the Alps,
 near Modane, France; it was the world's worst
 railroad accident until the 1989 
CHELYABINSK

 RAILROAD DISASTER. The accident was kept secret
 until after World War I ended.

Mogadishu rescue (October 18, 1977), sucessful West
 German commando attack, with the cooperation of the
 Somali government, on 
BAADER-MEINHOF GROUP
 hijackers holding 86 hostages aboard a Lufthansa
 airliner at Mogadishu airport.

Mohenjo-daro, center (with Harappa) of a major
 Bronze Age civilization in the Indus Valley, now in
 Pakistan, dating from about 2500-1500 
B.C.; it
 was rediscovered and excavated from the 1920s by
 British archaeologist Mortimer 
WHEELER.

Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho), thin boundary
 layer between the Earth's crust and the mantle
 below it, lying 5-40 kilometers below the surface
 and marked by sharp changes in the velocity of
 earthquake waves as they pass through Earth; it was
 discovered by Croatian seismologist Andrija
 Mohorovicic in 1909. In the 1961-66 Mohole Project,
 attempts by the U.S. research ship Glomar
 Challenger to bring up samples of the Moho were
 abandoned because of expense; however, the
 techniques developed were helpful in later deep-sea
 drilling projects intended to enhance geological
 knowledge or to find new oil and gas deposits.

Moi, Daniel arap (1924- ), Kenyan teacher, a
 founder of the Kenya African Democratic Union
 (KADU), the main opposition party in Kenya until
 its 1964 merger into the dominant Kenya African
 National Union (KANU), the party of Jomo
 
KENYATTA. He served in the Kenyatta cabinet from
 1961, became vice-president in 1967, and succeeded
 to the presidency in 1978, after Kenyatta's death.
 During his presidency substantial and increasing
 economic problems emerged, as did major internal
 political problems. The latter included an
 unsuccessful air force coup in 1982, the subsequent
 stifling of opposition, and the nominal reelection
 of Moi in 1988 without a popular vote, amounting to
 the straightforward establishment of an
 authoritarian government.

Molotov, Vyacheslav Mikhaylovich (1890-1986),
 Soviet diplomat and longtime associate of Joseph
 
STALIN, who supported Stalin during the
 internecine Communist party struggles of the 1920s
 and the 
GREAT PURGE of the 1930s. He became chief
 Soviet diplomat in 1939, in that year negotiating
 the 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT. He accompanied Stalin at
 
TEHERAN, YALTA, and 
POTSDAM and headed the
 Soviet UN delegation until 1949, representing the
 Soviet Union throughout the early years of the
 
COLD WAR. He fell from favor in 1956, after
 having joined in an attempt to remove 
KHRUSHCHEV
 from office, and was dismissed and stripped of all
 power by Khrushchev in 1957.

Moltke, Helmuth von (1848-1916), German World War I
 chief of staff, 1906-14, whose modification of the
 
SCHLIEFFEN PLAN made it possible for French and
 British forces to resist the first main German
 attack on France in 1914, and to stop the German
 armies at the Battle of the 
MARNE. After the
 German offensive stalled, he was replaced by
 General Erich von 
FALKENHAYN.

Mondale, Walter Frederick (1928- ) U.S. lawyer, and
 Democratic senator from Minnesota (1964-77), who
 served one term as Jimmy 
CARTER's vice president
 (1977-81) and was his party's presidential nominee
 in 1984. He lost the election to Ronald 
REAGAN by
 a large margin, carrying only Minnesota and the
 District of Columbia. Throughout his career he was
 a liberal, focusing domestically on such matters as
 
CIVIL RIGHTS and social welfare, and
 internationally on such matters as nuclear arms
 control, although for a time in the 1960s he
 supported 
JOHNSON administration policies in
 
VIETNAM.

Mondlane, Eduardo (1920-69), Mozambican
 independence movement leader; educated abroad, he
 was employed by the 
UNITED NATIONS and was a
 university teacher before returning to Africa in
 1962 to found FRELIMO (Mozambique Liberation Front)
 and take it into the long 
MOZAMBIQUE WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE in 1964. He pursued that war as
 leader of FRELIMO until his assassination by the
 Portuguese in 1969.

monkey trial, media-generated name for the 1925
 
SCOPES TRIAL which tested the Tennessee law
 prohibiting the teaching of evolution.

Monod, Jacques Lucien (1910-76), French biologist
 and director of Pasteur Institute in Paris who
 shared a 1965 Nobel Prize for Physiology or
 Medicine for his work on how living cells use a
 
FEEDBACK mechanism to control the manufacturing
 of vital substances. A hero of the French
 
RESISTANCE, Monod is probably best known for his
 1970 book, Chance and Necessity, in which he
 postulated that the whole of evolution has resulted
 from pure chance and that there is no plan or
 intention in the universe. This view, for Monod the
 result of attempted pure scientific objectivity,
 had links with 
EXISTENTIALISM, as expressed by
 his friend Albert 
CAMUS.

Mons, Battle of (August 23, 1914), one of the World
 War I Battles of the 
FRONTIERS, in which German
 forces sweeping south and west through Belgium
 forced back British and Belgian forces as part of a
 general Allied retreat.

Montagu, Montague Francis Ashley (1905- ),
 British-American anthropologist, who wrote widely
 on a number of controversial topics, notably race,
 sexual equality, 
CREATIONISM, and human
 aggression. Perhaps his best-known work was Man's
 Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (1942),
 from which he drew his draft of 
UNESCO's 1950
 "Statement on Race."

Montenegro, an independent nation at the beginning
 of the 20th century and a kingdom from 1910.
 Montenegro fought on the Allied side during World
 War I, being occupied by Austrian and German forces
 from 1916. It became part of Yugoslavia after World
 War I, was occupied by Italian troops, 1941-45, and
 became part of Yugoslavia again after World War II.


Montesorri, Maria (1870-1952), Italian
 physician-the first woman medical doctor in her
 country since medieval times-who helped transform
 early childhood education. At her Children's House
 in Rome, founded in 1907, she developed methods and
 materials designed to free a child's creative
 energy and develop coordination and perception,
 with the teacher as guide and inspiration rather
 than as instructor. These formed the model for the
 private Montessori schools later founded around the
 world, and they strongly influenced
 public-sponsored elementary education as well.

Montgomery, Bernard Law (1887-1976), British
 officer, who saw service in India and during World
 War I and was a divisional commander in the
 
BRITISH EXPEDITIONARY FORCE early in World War
 II, leaving France with his division at 
DUNKIRK.
 He commanded the British Eighth Army during the
 North African campaign, winning the Battle of 
EL

 ALAMEIN and ultimately linking up with Allied
 forces in Tunisia. He commanded British armies
 invading Sicily and then Italy, leaving the Italian
 campaign to prepare for the coming invasion of
 
NORMANDY. He served under General Dwight D.
 
EISENHOWER during and after that invasion, though
 often in extremely abrasive disagreement as to many
 major aspects of the European campaign. In 1944, he
 became a field marshal, and after the war he held
 important British and NATO posts.

Montgomery bus boycott, the 381-day Black boycott
 of public transportation in Montgomery, Alabama,
 organized by Martin Luther 
KING, Jr. and Ralph D.
 
ABERNATHY after the December 1, 1955, arrest of
 Rosa 
PARKS for refusing to give up her seat on a
 public bus. The campaign, which resulted in the
 desegregation of the city's buses, was the first
 major action of the modern American 
CIVIL RIGHTS

 MOVEMENT, catapulting King into national
 leadership, and beginning the long series of
 actions that in the next decade would mount a major
 attack on racism in the United States.

Moon, Earth's natural satellite and the target of
 various space activities, including the U.S.S.R.'s
 series of 
LUNIK SATELLITES, which first landed on
 the Moon in 1959; the U.S. 
RANGER, SURVEYOR, and
 
LUNAR ORBITER series, which also landed on the
 Moon, gathering data for a manned visit; and the
 U.S. 
APOLLO series which put the first humans on
 the Moon in 1969.

Moon, Sun Myung (1920- ), South Korean minister,
 who founded the Unification Church in 1954; he also
 developed considerable commercial interests in
 South Korea and the United States, some of them as
 an individual and some as church-run enterprises.
 His mostly young converts, popularly known as
 "Moonies," were pressed to develop total financial
 and personal commitment to the church. Moon moved
 his headquarters to the United States in 1973; in
 1982 he was convicted of U.S. income tax evasion,
 receiving an 18-month sentence.

Mooney, Thomas J., and 
WARREN K. BILLINGS, labor
 leaders who were convicted of bombing a San
 Francisco Preparedness Day parade on July 22, 1916,
 killing 10 and injuring scores of others. Mooney
 received a death sentence; Billings was sentenced
 to life imprisonment. A worldwide movement, the
 weakness of the trial evidence, and the
 intervention of President Woodrow 
WILSON secured
 commutation of Mooney's sentence to life
 imprisonment, and in 1939 he received a pardon. In
 the same year, Billings's sentence was reduced, and
 he was released.

Moonlight Sonata, German code name for the
 terrorist bombing raids conducted during the
 moonlight hours of November 14-15, 1940, on the
 British city of 
COVENTRY. The British had
 foreknowledge of the attack but could not use it,
 because of the need to protect crucial 
ULTRA
 information.

Moore, Sara Jane, would-be assassin who shot at but
 missed President Gerald R. 
FORD in San Francisco,
 on September 22, 1975; she was immediately captured
 and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment.

Moral Majority, U.S. conservative political
 organization founded by the Reverend Jerry
 
FALWELL in June 1979, that developed continuing
 campaigns on several major issues, including
 abortion, communism, homosexuality, women's rights,
 and pornography, all of which it opposed; and the
 American family, school prayer, and a strong
 military, all of which it favored. It was dissolved
 by Falwell in June 1989.

Morgan, John Pierpont (1837-1913), U.S. investment
 banker who became the most powerful financier of
 the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By the
 early 1900s he controlled a widespread financial
 and industrial empire that included what was then
 the largest corporation in the world, the United
 States Steel Corporation, which he organized in
 1901. He also controlled banks, securities firms,
 major railroads, shipping lines, and other
 industrial companies. Morgan was powerful enough to
 organize the private financial effort that
 controlled the brief 
PANIC OF 1907 but not strong
 enough to withstand the political power of the
 trust-busting progressive Republicans of his day,
 led by President Theodore 
ROOSEVELT. In 1904 his
 Northern Securities Company, a massive railroad
 trust, was broken up by the landmark Supreme Court
 decision in the 
NORTHERN SECURITIES CASE, and in
 1912 the 
PUJO COMMITTEE hearings subjected his
 holdings to extensive public scrutiny. He was also
 a very substantial philanthropist and art
 collector; much of his art collection went to the
 Metropolitan Museum of Art on his death, and his
 book collection became the Morgan Library.

Morgan, Thomas Hunt (1866-1945), U.S. biologist,
 who laid the foundation of modern genetics, for
 which he was awarded the 1933 Nobel Prize for
 Physiology or Medicine, the first U.S.-born
 American and the first nonphysician so honored. In
 breeding experiments (1907-10) using the common
 fruit fly, Drosophila, Morgan showed for the first
 time that 
GENES were units of heredity, and that
 some inherited characteristics are sex-linked,
 ideas outlined in several works, notably Theory of
 the Gene (1926).

Morocco (Kingdom of Morocco), until 1956, split
 into French and Spanish protectorates although
 formally an independent nation. Morocco was not
 easily held: the 
RIF WAR of the 1920s was the
 most powerful of many risings against European
 rule, and the country was not fully conquered until
 the mid-1930s. Independence came on March 2, 1956.


Morocco Crisis of 1905, a crisis that occurred when
 Germany challenged French colonial interests in
 Morocco. It led to the Algeciras Conference of
 1906, resulting in British support of France
 against Germany.

Morocco Crisis of 1911, a second Morocco crisis,
 which occurred when Germany again challenged the
 French, sending the gunboat Panther to the Moroccan
 port of Agadir. With Britain supporting France, a
 general war seemed very close, but Germany withdrew
 after a face-saving agreement with France. Both
 Morocco crises were part of the run-up to World War
 I.

Morro Castle sinking (September 7-8, 1934), the
 sinking of the excursion liner 
MORRO CASTLE off
 New Jersey after a fire that went out of control.
 The crew fought the fire ineffectually, then took
 the first lifeboats, leaving most of the passengers
 on board; 134 passengers died in the fire and
 sinking.

Mosca, Gaetano (1858-1941), Italian political
 theorist, who from the early 1880s and most
 influentially in his Elements of Political Science
 (1896), posited that all societies are dominated by
 ruling elites. A liberal legislator and diplomat,
 he left public life after the victory of fascism in
 Italy. His theories, which in no way favored
 fascism, were used by Italian fascists to justify
 totalitarian rule.

Moscow, Battle of (November-December 1941), the
 decisive early battle on the Russian front in World
 War II. German forces, advancing uninterruptedly
 since the June 22 invasion, neared Moscow in
 October; slowed in mud and developing cold weather,
 they paused to regroup. With reinforcements and the
 commitment of much of Germany's remaining air force
 in the east, they renewed their offensive,
 ultimately reaching Moscow's suburbs. But Russian
 reinforcements from the Far East arrived in early
 November, the defenses of Moscow held, and Soviet
 forces began a major and successful
 counteroffensive on December 6. The long German
 offensive ended, short of Moscow. 
HITLER then
 compounded German problems by relieving several of
 his generals and taking personal command of the
 situation.

Moscow, Treaty of (July 1920), recognized the
 independence of Lithuania after the 
LITHUANIAN WAR

 OF INDEPENDENCE (1918-20).

Moscow summit (May 1988), the fourth meeting
 between U.S. President Ronald 
REAGAN and U.S.S.R.
 premier Mikhail 
GORBACHEV, at which they
 exchanged formal 
INF TREATY ratification
 documents, continued their attempts to resolve
 regional conflicts and long-standing superpower
 differences throughout the world, and signed a
 series of less important agreements, all in
 continuance of the new set of Soviet-American
 relationships that had begun with the transfer of
 Soviet power to Gorbachev in early 1985.

Moscow trials, three major show trials held in
 Moscow, in 1936, 1937, and 1938, during the 
GREAT

 PURGE, in which many of the Soviet Union's
 best-known Communists, all of them at some time
 opposed to Joseph 
STALIN, confessed themselves
 guilty of a wide assortment of wholly fabricated
 crimes and were subsequently executed, many of them
 to later be "posthumously rehabilitated."

Moslem Brotherhood, Sunni Islamic fundamentalist
 movement largely based in Egypt from its founding
 in 1928, which developed considerable strength and
 much terrorist activity during the 1940s. The
 organization was banned in Egypt, and greatly
 damaged by the government of Gamal Abdal 
NASSER
 in the 1950s, suffering thousands of arrests and
 the execution or imprisonment of much of its
 leadership. It has experienced some resurgence in
 the 1980s through covert alliances with legal
 parties. In Syria, the movement developed strength
 as a legal party after its founding in the late
 1930s and through the 
BA'ATH coup of 1963 but was
 then outlawed, moving into guerrilla and terrorist
 warfare against the government. A Moslem
 Brotherhood-led insurrection at Hama in 1982 was
 defeated by the Iraqi army, with thousands killed.


Moslem League (All-India Moslem League), a Moslem
 political and civil rights organization formed in
 1906 in British India that became a mass political
 organization under the leadership of Mohammad Ali
 
JINNAH in the late 1930s. In 1940 the League
 called for the formation of the separate Islamic
 state of Pakistan and won British and Indian
 agreement to the creation of an independent
 Pakistan after the massive Hindu-Moslem civil
 disorders of 1945. The League became the ruling
 party of Pakistan after independence in 1947 but
 was banned from 1958 to 1962, as were all political
 parties. It reorganized in 1962, renamed itself the
 Pakistan Moslem League, and nominally returned to
 power, remaining in power until the rise of the
 Pakistan People's party in 1977. During the rule of
 Mohammad 
ZIA UL-HAQ, the party was allowed to
 form a cabinet with Mohammed Khan Junejo as prime
 minister, but all real power resided in Zia and the
 Pakistani army.

Mosley, Oswald (1896-1980), British fascist,
 racist, and founder of the British Union of
 Fascists in 1932; he began his political career as
 a Conservative in 1918, switched to Labour in 1924,
 and was a Labour MP 1926-30. Mosley became a
 
MUSSOLINI-style fascist in 1932, later leaning
 more toward the more overtly anti-Jewish Nazi style
 of fascism. During the 1930s his party attempted to
 develop a Nazi paramilitary force in Britain, with
 largely unsuccessful street actions in London's
 then predominantly Jewish East End. It provoked
 counterviolence, and the government then banned the
 development of such private armed forces. Mosley
 was arrested and interned, 1940-43, thereafter
 serving mainly as an inspirational symbol to later
 British fascist movements.

Mossadeq, Mohammed (1880-1967), Iranian political
 leader and lifelong opponent of the 
PAHLEVI shahs
 of Iran, who became head of Iran's National Front
 party in the late 1940s and premier of Iran when
 his party took power in 1951. The Mossadeq
 government nationalized Iran's oil industry,
 precipitating a major dispute with Great Britain,
 and simultaneously attempted to develop a new
 social system in Iran. In August 1953 U.S. and
 British intelligence organizations tried and failed
 to organize a coup against the Iranian government;
 Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi then fled the country.
 Three days later an army revolt toppled the
 government, the shah returned, and Mossadeq was
 imprisoned. He left prison 3 years later, but was
 kept under house arrest until his death.

Mother Cabrini, the popular name of Frances Xavier
 
CABRINI, a Catholic nun who worked with poor
 immigrants and was sainted in 1946.

Mother Jones, the popular name of Mary Harris
 
JONES, U.S. labor organizer of the late 19th and
 early 20th centuries.

Mother Teresa (Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu; 1910- ),
 Roman Catholic nun, from 1928, who taught in India;
 in 1948 she founded a school in Calcutta dedicated
 to working with the poor, and in 1950 founded what
 became the worldwide Missionaries of Charity order,
 which worked with the poor and ill. She received
 the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize for her work.

Mount St. Helens eruption (May 18, 1980), a huge
 volcanic eruption in the state of Washington that
 killed 40-60 people and caused great physical
 damage. Although there was adequate warning, the
 eruption was much more powerful than had been
 anticipated.

Mountbatten, Louis (Lord Mountbatten; 1900-79),
 British naval officer and cousin to the British
 royal family, who became chief of British combined
 operations 1942-43 and supreme Allied commander in
 southeast Asia 1943-46; he commanded the Allied
 forces that took back Burma from the Japanese. He
 was the last viceroy of India, and as British
 governor-general worked with both sides during the
 
PARTITION OF INDIA. He was assassinated by the
 
IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY on August 28, 1979, while
 on holiday off the coast of Ireland.

Mount Ogura crash (August 12, 1985), crash of a
 Japan Air 747 into Mt. Ogura, Japan, killing 520 of
 524 aboard; it was the world's worst single-plane
 disaster to date.

Mount Pelee eruption (May 8, 1902), a volcanic
 eruption that killed an estimated 30,000,
 destroying the city of Saint-Pierre on the island
 of Martinique. The deaths occurred largely because
 the local government chose to ignore abundant signs
 and specific scientific warnings of an impending
 eruption.

MOVE bombing (May 13, 1985), police bombing of the
 Philadelphia building housing the radical MOVE
 organization after earlier efforts to evict MOVE
 members had led to a police siege. The bombing-set
 off in an attempt to force evacuation-killed 11
 people, several of them children, and started a
 fire that destroyed 61 neighborhood homes.

Mozambique (People's Republic of Mozambique), until
 1975 a Portuguese colony. It became independent on
 June 25, 1975, after the 
MOZAMBIQUE WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE.

Mozambique National Resistance, formal name of
 RENAMO, the Portuguese and South African-backed
 insurgent organization in Mozambique.

Mozambique War of Independence (1964-74), a 10-year
 guerrilla war fought by 
FRELIMO (Mozambique
 National Liberation Front) forces against the
 Portuguese army with considerable success. It ended
 with the April 1974 coup in Portugual which
 overthrew the 
SALAZAR government. The new
 Portuguese government, headed by Antonio 
SPINOLA,
 made peace with 
FRELIMO, headed by Machel
 
SAMORA; independence came to Mozambique in June
 1975.

MPLA, initials of the 
POPULAR MOVEMENT FOR THE

 LIBERATION OF ANGOLA, by which the organization is
 best known.

MRI (magnetic resonance imager), alternate name for
 the 
NMR IMAGER.

Mubarek, Mohammed Hosni (1928- ), Egyptian air
 force officer, who became air force chief of staff
 in 1969, armed forces commander-in-chief in 1972,
 and Anwar al-
SADAT'S vice-president in 1975. His
 prestige soared after his forces scored substantial
 early successes during the 
YOM KIPPUR WAR
 (
FOURTH ARAB-ISRAELI WAR) of 1973. After Sadat's
 assassination in 1981, Mubarek succeeded to the
 Egyptian presidency, thereafter essentially
 continuing Sadat's moderate foreign policies,
 combatting Islamic fundamentalism at home, and
 attempting to deal with Egypt's very serious
 economic problems.

muckrakers, a body of U.S. writer-reformers who
 described a wide range of corrupt practices and
 attitudes throughout American society in the early
 years of the 20th century, with special attention
 to corporate practices in the period 1902-12. Their
 work came to public attention with the publication
 of Ida 
TARBELL's 1902 series on the Standard Oil
 Corporation, but the name "muckraker" was first
 applied to them by Theodore 
ROOSEVELT in 1906.
 Their work furthered some of his most strongly
 supported legislative reforms, including the 
PURE

 FOOD AND DRUG ACT (1906), and the Beef Inspection
 Act (1906), which followed soon after publication
 of Upton 
SINCLAIR's 
THE JUNGLE, a novel that
 powerfully and effectively attacked meatpacking
 practices.

Mueller v. Allen (1983), a landmark U.S. Supreme
 Court decision validating a Minnesota law that
 allowed state tax deductions for tuition,
 textbooks, and transportation to private elementary
 and secondary schools.

Mugabe, Robert Gabriel (1924- ), Zimbabwean
 teacher, nationalist, and socialist who was a
 founder of the Zimbabwe African National Union
 (ZANU) in 1963. He was imprisoned, 1964-75,
 emerging to join the intensifying guerrilla war
 against Ian 
SMITH'S white Rhodesian government.
 He became leader of ZANU in 1976, quickly forming a
 troubled but effective alliance with Joshua
 
NKOMO'S Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) in
 the Patriotic Front. The two parties campaigned
 independently in the free, British-supervised
 elections of 1980; ZANU won a clear majority, and
 Mugabe became first prime minister of the new
 Republic of Zimbabwe. His party won again in 1985,
 Mugabe becoming executive president. His ZANU
 forced ZAPU to merge with it with in 1987; in that
 year, the Mugabe government also abolished the
 reservation of 20 parliamentary seats for whites.
 Zimbabwe then became a one-party state led by
 Mugabe, with a very large cabinet that included
 Nkomo.

Muhammad, Elijah (Elijah Poole; 1897-1975), U.S.
 
BLACK MUSLIM, who succeeded Wali Farad as leader
 of the 
NATION OF ISLAM in 1934. He was
 imprisoned, 1942-46, for counseling draft evasion.


Mujaheddin, in Afghanistan, a general term
 encompassing all of the diverse antigovernment,
 anti-Soviet groups and guerrilla fighters engaged
 in the 
AFGHAN-SOVIET WAR of the 1980s. It is also
 the name popularly applied to an umbrella guerrilla
 organization, the Islamic Alliance of Afghan Holy
 Warriors, which emerged as a government-in-exile,
 based in Pakistan, in 1985.

Mujaheddin-e-Khalq (People's Warriors), an Iranian
 socialist and Islamic political and military
 organization that opposed the shah and became the
 major source of armed resistance to Iran's Islamic
 fundamentalist government. It engaged in guerrilla
 warfare, terrorism, and assassination throughout
 the country.

Mukden, Battle of (February 21-March 10, 1904), the
 decisive land battle of the 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR,
 in which the Japanese defeated the Russians.

Mukden-Chinchow, Battle of (October 27-30, 1948),
 the defeat and then destruction of the retreating
 Nationalist Manchurian army by Communist forces
 during the final stages of the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR.


Mukden Incident (September 18-19, 1931), the
 seizure of Mukden, China, by Japan's 
KWANGTUNG

 ARMY; the alleged bombing of a Japanese railway
 line was the pretext used. The army then quickly
 seized all of Manchuria, renaming it Manchukuo, and
 set up Henry 
P'U YI as its puppet ruler.

Muldoon, Robert David (1921- ), New Zealand
 accountant, a Conservative member of parliament
 from 1960 and prime minister 1975-84, who leaned
 toward the United States in foreign affairs and
 pursued a conservative course at home.

Mulroney, Martin Brian (1939- ), Canadian lawyer
 and corporate executive, who entered parliament and
 became Progressive Conservative party leader in
 1983. As prime minister (1984- ) he negotiated a
 major trade treaty with the United States in
 January 1988, and won an electoral victory largely
 on the issue of approval of that treaty, in
 November 1988, while continuing to face substantial
 economic problems.

Munich Agreement (September 29-30, 1938), the
 agreement made in Munich, Germany, by which France
 and Great Britain acceded to German demands for
 "self-determination," meaning, in practice,
 immediate annexation by Germany of several largely
 German-speaking areas in western Czechoslovakia.
 The Nazis called the area the 
SUDETENLAND; it had
 been part of Czechoslovakia since the end of World
 War I. The agreement was made by prime ministers
 Neville 
CHAMBERLAIN and Edouard 
DALADIER
 without consulting the Czechs. It clearly mean t
 immediate dismemberment of Czechoslovakia,
 predictably followed by German annexation of the
 rest of the country, which came in March 1939,
 without demur from Great Britain and France. It
 also very clearly encouraged 
HITLER to continue
 his adventurist policies and led directly to World
 War II, although Chamberlain told his people
 afterward that he had brought them "
PEACE FOR OUR

 TIME."

Munich Olympics murders (September 1972), a 
BLACK

 SEPTEMBER terrorist group attacked Israeli
 athletes at the 20th Olympics, in Munich, killing
 two and taking nine hostages; all nine were killed
 when a rescue operation miscarried. Five terrorists
 were killed in the action; the others were later
 traded for hostages taken in an airline hijacking.


Munoz Marn, Luis (1898-1980), Puerto Rican
 journalist and son of Luis Munoz Rivera, a leader
 in the fight for freedom from Spanish rule before
 U.S. annexation of Puerto Rico. In 1938 he founded
 the Puerto Rican Popular Democratic party,
 thereafter leading his party to electoral majority.
 In 1948 he was elected the first Puerto Rican
 governor of the island and was reelected three
 times (1952-64).

Murder, Incorporated, the name given by the media
 of the 1930s to the assassination group of the
 
MAFIA, or national crime syndicate. The leaders
 of the group were Albert Anastasia and Louis
 "Lepke" Buchalter.

Murdoch, Keith Rupert (1931- ), Australian-American
 publisher who, starting in 1952 with a single small
 Australian newspaper, built a large, diverse
 worldwide communications enterprise. His
 publications include The Times of London, one of
 the world's oldest and most highly respected
 newspapers, as well as a wide variety of other
 publishing, broadcasting, and related companies.

Murmansk Run, during World War II, the North
 Atlantic convoy route from assembly areas near
 Iceland to Murmansk; in warmer weather, some
 convoys went to Archangel. From early 1942 enormous
 quantities of American war material flowed to the
 Soviet Union along this route.

Murphy, Frank (1890-1949), U.S. lawyer, who pursued
 a varied career as practicing attorney, prosecutor,
 judge, mayor of Detroit, U.S. high commissioner of
 the Philippines, Democratic governor of Michigan
 (1936-38), and U.S. attorney-general (1939-40),
 before being appointed by Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT
 to the Supreme Court in 1940. As governor and
 attorney-general, he had been a strong voice in
 defense of civil rights and sympathetic to union
 organization; he continued to pursue those
 interests on the Court.

Murray, Philip (1886-1952), U.S. coal miner, and
 vice-president of the United Mine Workers of
 America (UMW) 1920-42. In 1936 John L. 
LEWIS
 appointed him head of the Steel Workers Organizing
 Committee, which went on to become the United
 Steelworkers of America; he became its first
 president in 1942. Murray was president of the
 
CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (CIO)
 1940-52.

Murrow, Edward Roscoe (1908-65), U.S. journalist
 and broadcaster, whose World War II broadcasts from
 London ("
THIS IS LONDON") during the 
BLITZ
 in1940 developed great sympathy for the Allied
 cause in the United States. He became a television
 broadcaster in the 1950s, his "See It Now" becoming
 the most celebrated public service program of the
 time, as was his later "Person to Person." In the
 early 1950s he powerfully and effectively opposed
 the witchhunts generated by Senator Joseph
 
MCCARTHY and his associates.

Muskie, Edmund Sixtus (1914- ), U.S. lawyer,
 Democratic governor of Maine, 1955-59; senator,
 1959-80; and secretary of state, May 1980-January
 1981. In 1968 he unsuccessfully ran for the
 vice-presidency, and in 1972 unsuccessfully sought
 his party's presidential nomination. He was the
 Democratic frontrunner during much of the
 nomination campaign, but his campaign was seriously
 damaged by the 
DIRTY TRICKS CAMPAIGN organized
 and financed by the staff of President Richard M.
 
NIXON, then seeking reelection.

Mussolini, Benito "Il Duce" (1883-1945), Italian
 teacher, journalist, and one-time socialist who
 became fascist leader of Italy, 1922-43. In 1912 he
 became editor of the socialist newspaper Avanti,
 strongly opposing the oncoming world war. In 1914
 he changed his position, became editor of a pro-war
 newspaper, and was expelled from the Socialist
 Party. In 1919 he founded the first Italian fascist
 organization and in 1921 became a fascist member of
 parliament, in the same period organizing the
 
BLACKSHIRTS into terrorist street-fighting groups
 that became a national paramilitary force. In 1922
 the fascist 
MARCH ON ROME in late October was
 unopposed by King 
VICTOR EMMANUEL III and the
 Italian army; Mussolini became prime minister and
 soon dictator of Italy, known as Il Duce (The
 Leader). In that position he destroyed Italian
 democracy and murdered, jailed, and exiled his
 opponents. He also became extremely popular with
 the great mass of the Italian people for his
 oratory, grandiose building schemes, the seeming
 stability and relative prosperity he brought to the
 country, and his empire building. In 1935 his
 armies invaded 
ETHIOPIA, ignoring inadequate
 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS sanctions. In 1936 the Italian
 government began sending massive support to the
 fascist side in the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR, including
 an estimated 50,000 troops and more than 1,500
 airplanes, at that time much of the Italian air
 force. In 1939 Italy occupied 
ALBANIA. On June
 10, 1940, Mussolini took his country into World War
 II on the side of his German ally, Adolf 
HITLER.
 His forces proved totally inadequate for modern
 warfare. The Italian army was defeated in Greece,
 needing German help to ultimately defeat the much
 smaller, poorly equipped Greek army. In the early
 days of the war in North Africa major elements of
 the Italian army were destroyed by much smaller
 British forces, with hundreds of thousands of
 Italian prisoners taken. On July 24, 1943, after
 the Allied invasion of Sicily on July 23, Mussolini
 was stripped of power and imprisoned by his own
 Fascist Grand Council. The Germans rescued him,
 took him to Munich, and then set him up in a puppet
 government in northern Italy; the fighting on the
 Italian front was taken over by German troops. At
 the end, April 28, 1945, he and his mistress,
 Claretta Petacci, were killed by Italian partisans,
 who found him trying to escape over the border to
 Germany disguised as a German soldier.

mustard gas, popular name for 2,2'-dichlorodiethyl
 sulfide, the "king of poison gases," introduced in
 1917 in World War I as part of 
CHEMICAL AND
 
BIOLOGICAL WARFARE.

Muste, Abraham Johannes (1887-1967), U.S. pacifist
 minister, who was executive secretary of the
 
FELLOWSHIP OF RECONCILIATION, 1940-53, and a
 leading antinuclear activist and peace movement
 leader after the use of the atomic bomb at
 
HIROSHIMA and 
NAGASAKI and the development of
 the 
COLD WAR in the late 1940s. Earlier, during
 the 1920s and 1930s, he had been a labor organizer
 and Marxian socialist revolutionary.

Muzorewa, Abel Tendekayi (1925- ), Zimbabwean
 United Methodist bishop and black nationalist, a
 moderate who did not join the large-scale move into
 intensified civil war in 1975-76 and who was, in
 1979, briefly prime minister of the white-organized
 multracial government of Rhodesia that preceded the
 establishment of the Republic of Zimbabwe.

My Lai Massacre (March 16, 1968), the mass murders
 of Vietnamese civilians, mostly women, children,
 and old men, in the hamlet of My Lai in Quang Tri
 province, Vietnam, by soldiers of the Americal
 Division, U.S. Army. The platoon, commanded by
 Lieutenant William L. 
CALLEY, Jr., murdered an
 estimated 347 unarmed civilians after pushing them
 into a ditch, and were then joined in a daylong
 orgy of atrocities by other U.S. soldiers in the
 area. A later court martial convicted only
 Lieutenant Calley of mass murder, all 12 other
 indicted soldiers escaping any penalty. Calley was
 sentenced to life imprisonment; his sentence was
 later commuted to 10 years, and he was paroled in
 September 1974.

Myrdal, Alva Reimer (1902-86), Swedish teacher,
 social planner, public official, diplomat, and
 peace activist, who directed social welfare
 departments of the 
UNITED NATIONS and 
UNESCO
 1949-56, was Swedish ambassador to India 1956-61, a
 member of parliament 1962-70, Geneva Disarmament
 Conference delegate 1962-73, and minister for
 disarmament and church affairs 1966-73. Throughout
 her life, Alva Myrdal was deeply concerned with
 world population control, social welfare, and
 disarmament. She shared a Nobel Peace Prize with
 Alfonso Garca Robles in 1982. Her husband was
 Gunnar 
MYRDAL.

Myrdal, Gunnar (1898-1987), Swedish economist and
 sociologist, whose interest in the related matters
 of worldwide poverty, population control, race
 relations, and integrated economic development
 produced a series of major and very influential
 works, including the classic study of U.S. race
 relations, An American Dilemma (1944), and Asian
 Drama (1968). He was Swedish minister of trade and
 commerce, 1945-47, and executive secretary of the
 
UNITED NATIONS Economic Commission for Europe,
 1947-57. His term "stagflation," used to describe
 the combination of stagnation and inflation he
 believed characterized most Western economies in
 the 1970s and 1980s, became part of the language.
 He shared a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic
 Science with Friedrich 
HAYEK in 1974. His wife
 was Alva 
MYRDAL.

NAACP, the initials of the 
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION

 FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE.

Nader, Ralph (1934- ), U.S. lawyer, who became a
 leading consumer advocate. He began his work soon
 after graduation from law school in 1958, and
 published his book Unsafe at Any Speed, an attack
 on the safety of U.S. motor vehicles, in 1965,
 later organizing a group of like-minded reformers
 who took up a wide range of consumer safety issues.


Nagasaki, site on Japan's Kyushu Island where the
 second 
ATOMIC BOMB was used in warfare. At 9:30
 
A.M., on August 9, 1945, a B-29 bomber of the
 U.S. Air Force dropped the bomb on the city of
 Nagasaki, a secondary target, after the pilot
 failed to sight the prime target at Kokura. It was
 the only atomic bomb then in existence, the first
 having been used in the 
TRINITY test and the
 second to bomb 
HIROSHIMA on August 6. Nagasaki,
 like Hiroshima, was a relatively undamaged minor
 military target; the bombing was intended as a
 demonstration of the killing power of the atomic
 weapon and an attempt to force Japan to surrender
 unconditionally. The Nagasaki bomb immediately
 killed an estimated 40,000-70,000 people, injuring
 an equal number and destroying approximately half
 of the city's structures. An estimated
 50,000-100,000 more people later died of 
RADIATION

 sickness, 
CANCER, and other bomb-related
 injuries, most of them within a few years of the
 bombing; victims and their children are still dying
 today of the bomb's effects. The city was rebuilt
 after the war, away from the radiation-damaged
 area; part of it is now a peace park.

Nagorno-Karabagh, largely Armenian enclave in
 Azerbaijan, the genesis of the
 
AZERBAIJANI-ARMENIAN CIVIL WAR that began in
 early 1988.

Nagumo, Chuichi (1887-1944), Japanese naval officer
 who, as commander of the First Air Fleet, directed
 major Japanese air attacks during the early years
 of World War II, including the attack on 
PEARL

 HARBOR on December 7, 1941. He commanded the
 Japanese carrier fleet at the Battle of 
MIDWAY,
 losing four carriers and with them Japanese hopes
 of winning the Pacific war. He was later relieved
 of carrier force command, and committed suicide in
 July 1944.

Nagy, Imre (1896-1958), Hungarian Communist leader,
 who joined the 
BOLSHEVIKS while a Russian war
 prisoner during World War I, returned to do
 clandestine Communist organizing work in Hungary,
 1921-30, and lived in the Soviet Union, 1930-44,
 working as an agronomist. He returned to Hungary
 after World War II as agriculture minister in the
 
RAKOSI government. After 
STALIN'S death in 1953
 he replaced Rakosi as prime minister, immediately
 instituting the more liberal policies favored by
 new Soviet prime minister, Georgi 
MALENKOV; he
 lost power to Rakosi in 1955 and was expelled from
 his party later that year. He became prime minister
 again on October 24, 1956, during the 
HUNGARIAN

 REVOLUTION, immediately instituted major
 democratic reforms, released Cardinal 
MINDZENTY,
 and announced Hungary's neutrality and coming
 withdrawal from the 
WARSAW PACT. After the Soviet
 invasion that ended the revolt he was executed. He
 was posthumously rehabitated in 1989, and reburied,
 with honors.

Najibullah, Mohammad (1947- ), Afghani political
 leader, who succeeded Babrak 
KARMAL as ruling
 party head in May 1986 and formally took power in
 Afghanistan in December 1986. Before that he had
 been head (1979-85) of the secret police.

Nakasone, Yasuhiro (1918- ), Japanese political
 leader, a World War II naval officer, in parliament
 from 1947, who held a series of cabinet-level posts
 in the 1960s and 1970s and was leader of the ruling
 conservative Liberal Democratic party and prime
 minister 1982-87. In 1988 a massive stock scandal
 was exposed, revealing that several of Nakasone's
 key associates and aides had engaged in illegal
 activities while in office, as far back as 1984.

Namibia, until 1918, as South West Africa, a German
 colony. It was occupied by South African forces
 during the World War I and afterward; it became a
 South African-administered 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 mandate territory in 1920 and a 
UNITED NATIONS
 trust territory after World War II. After 1946
 South Africa continued to occupy Namibia in
 defiance of the UN and from the mid-1960s attempted
 to apply its own 
APARTHEID policies to Namibia.
 The long 
NAMIBIAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE began in
 1966 and ended in 1988. Namibia became an
 independent nation in March 1990.

Namibian War of Independence (1966-88), a guerrilla
 war conducted by the 
SOUTHWEST AFRICA PEOPLE'S

 ORGANIZATION OF NAMIBIA (SWAPO), operating out of
 bases in Angola, against the South African
 occupiers of Namibia, who were holding Namibia
 under authority of a mandate that was withdrawn by
 the 
UNITED NATIONS General Assembly in October
 1966. SWAPO forces were supplied by the Soviet
 Union and backed by Cuban and Angolan forces. The
 South African army was able to contain the
 low-level insurgency, making many incursions into
 Angola against SWAPO forces, often fighting Cuban
 and Angolan forces as well, sometimes in support of
 the South African-backed guerrillas of the Jonas
 
SAVIMBI'S NATIONAL UNION FOR THE TOTAL

 INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA (UNITA). The long
 insurgency continued, however, side by side with
 the long 
ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR, accompanied by
 unremitting United Nations condemnation of the
 South African occupation of Namibia. In November
 1988, as part of an attempted general peace
 settlement in the region and with Cuban and South
 African forces withdrawing, South Africa agreed to
 Namibian independence. The independence process was
 almost upset at the outset, as SWAPO guerrillas
 moved across the Angolan border soon after the
 cease-fire in violation of the peace agreement.
 They were forced back over the border with
 considerable losses, and the peace agreement held,
 supervised by a UN peacekeeping force.

Nanchang Uprising (August 1927), the first major
 armed clash of the long 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR. The
 Communist forces were defeated, their remnants
 fleeing to the Ching-kang Mountains of western
 Kiangsi.

Nansen, Fridtjof (1861-1930), Norwegian
 oceanographer and statesman. From the 1880s Nansen
 was an Arctic explorer, his most famous expedition
 being 1895-1896 when, with his specially built ship
 Fram (Forward), he explored the drift of polar ice,
 nearly reaching the 
NORTH POLE. He continued
 oceanographic explorations and teaching and from
 1906 was a public official as well. In newly
 independent 
NORWAY he served as minister to
 Britain (1906-08) and head of his country's 
LEAGUE

 OF NATIONS delegation (1920). From then until his
 death he headed commissions, for the League and for
 the International Red Cross, designed to repatriate
 prisoners of war and help resettle displaced
 persons; he developed for them a special identity
 card, popularly dubbed the "Nansen passport."
 Awarded the 1922 Nobel Peace Prize for this work,
 he donated the prize money to the cause.

Narayan, Jaya Prakash (1902-79), Indian nationalist
 and socialist, a follower of Mahatma 
GANDHI in
 his youth, who led an armed insurgency against
 British rule during World War II. Narayan left
 political life in the early 1950s but came out of
 retirement to challenge Indira 
GANDHI'S

 government in 1974, charging corruption and a
 worsening of the condition of the masses of the
 Indian poor. He was chief organizer of the Janata
 party coalition that defeated Gandhi in the 1977
 elections; that done, he retired again in 1978.

Narvik, key site in the 1940 Battle of 
NORWAY,
 early in World War II.

NASA, initials of the 
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND

 SPACE ADMINISTRATION.

Nasser, Gamal Abdel (1918-70), Egyptian officer,
 who in 1948 saw service in the 
FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI

 WAR (ISRAELI WAR OF INDEPENDENCE). In June 1952,
 then a colonel, he was the chief organizer of the
 
EGYPTIAN REVOLUTION, an army coup that ended the
 rule of 
FAROUK I and established the Egyptian
 republic. He became premier in 1954, president in
 1956, and thereafter led Egypt until his death of a
 heart attack in 1970. He was the first major leader
 of modern Egypt, fostering modernization, land
 reform, secular institutions, military strength,
 and massive public works projects, the largest of
 which was the construction of the 
ASWAN HIGH DAM
 on the Nile. Withdrawal of promised British and
 U.S. funds for that project led to his
 nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956. The
 subsequent 
SUEZ CRISIS and the 
SINAI-SUEZ WAR

 (SECOND ARAB-ISRAELI WAR) led to military defeat
 and the loss of the Sinai Peninsula, while greatly
 increasing Nasser's Arab world prestige. This, in
 turn, led to the short-lived formal union with
 Syria (1958-61) as the United Arab Republic. Nasser
 died shortly after successfully mediating the
 Jordanian-Palestinian conflict of 1970-71.

Nation, Carry Amelia Moore (1846-1911),
 
PROHIBITION activist of the late 19th and early
 20th centuries, best known for her campaign against
 alcohol-serving establishments. From 1901 she
 carried on the hatchet-wielding violence against
 liquor stocks and furniture that became her
 trademark.

Nation of Islam, the formal name of the 
BLACK

 MUSLIMS.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
 (NASA), body in charge of the U.S. space program
 from October 1, 1958, created following the Soviet
 Union's 1957 
SPUTNIK flight and replacing the
 earlier, research-oriented National Advisory
 Committee on Aeronautics (NACA). Much of NASA's
 developmental work was carried out in Huntsville,
 Alabama, home of the U.S. Army Ballistic Missile
 Arsenal; the space flights themselves were launched
 from 
CAPE CANAVERAL (CAPE KENNEDY, 1963-73),
 Florida, and coordinated from the 
JOHNSON SPACE

 CENTER in Houston. The 
SPACE SHUTTLE's frequent
 landing site is 
EDWARDS AIR FORCE BASE in
 California.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored
 People (NAACP), the leading U.S. civil rights
 organization of the 20th century; from its founding
 in 1909, it engaged in a series of major battles
 for racial and sexual equality. Focusing heavily on
 equality before the law, it won a series of major
 court cases, from Guinn v. United States (1915),
 which outlawed the "grandfather clause," to Brown
 v. Board of Education (1954), outlawing school
 segregation. It was biracial from the start, though
 moving over to mainly Black leadership in 1919, and
 has been led by such major figures as William E.
 
DU BOIS, James Weldon 
JOHNSON, Walter 
WHITE,
 and Roy 
WILKINS. In the 1960s, the NAACP began to
 share leadership with more directly activist
 groups, such as Martin Luther 
KING's 
SOUTHERN

 CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE (SCLC), but
 remained a key U.S. civil rights organization.

National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA),
 organization founded in 1962 and led by Holden
 
ROBERTO. FNLA set up a government in exile and
 fought the 
ANGOLAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE in
 northern Angola to victory in 1974. During 1975 it
 entered into a coalition with the 
POPULAR MOVEMENT

 FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA (MPLA) and the
 
NATIONAL UNION FOR THE TOTAL INDEPENDENCE OF

 ANGOLA (UNITA), but late in 1975 joined UNITA
 against the MPLA in the 
ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR. By
 1979 it had been broken by Cuban and MPLA forces;
 Roberto fled abroad, but some FNLA remnants fought
 on into the early 1980s.

National Health Service, British
 government-operated medical and dental service
 initiated by Clement 
ATTLEE'S post-World War II
 Labour government in 1946 and put into full
 operation in 1948. It was a major element of the
 British "safety net" and a goal long sought by
 Labour. At the start it was hoped that all services
 could be fully government-paid, but by 1951 some
 charges had been instituted, although the service
 continued to be operated by the government at far
 less cost to patients than private health care
 services.

National Industrial Recovery Act (1933), U.S.
 federal law that set up the 
NATIONAL RECOVERY

 ADMINISTRATION (NRA), a 
NEW DEAL agency.

National Labor Relations Act (1935), the formal
 name of 
WAGNER ACT, the major U.S. labor
 relations law of the 
GREAT DEPRESSION.

National Labor Relations Board, a U.S. federal
 agency created by the 
WAGNER ACT of 1935 and,
 until amended by the 
TAFT-HARTLEY ACT of 1947, a
 
NEW DEAL agency that made it much easier to
 organize unions than was possible before its
 passage or after its amendment. The Taft-Hartley
 Act and the Landrum-Griffin Act of 1959
 considerably altered the regulatory balance between
 labor and management.

National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin
 Steel Corporation (1937), a landmark U.S. Supreme
 Court decision validating the 
NATIONAL LABOR

 RELATIONS ACT, which had made it far easier for
 trade unions to organize and had been providing
 legal support for the organization of the 
CONGRESS

 OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (CIO). A wave of
 industrial union organization followed this
 decision.

National Organization for Women (NOW), a U.S.
 organization formed in 1966 to advocate and drive
 toward complete equality for women under the law,
 in practice, and in every portion of society. To
 those ends it mounted a wide series of attacks on
 discriminatory practices, lobbied for women's
 rights legislation, and initiated and entered court
 cases involving women's rights. It played a major
 role in pushing an 
EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT through
 Congress in the early 1970s, but was unable to
 secure ratification by a sufficient number of
 states.

National Party (NP), the ruling party of the
 Republic of South Africa from 1948, the party of
 Daniel 
MALAN, Johannes 
STRIJDON, Hendrik
 
VERWOERD, Pieter 
BOTHA, and F.W. 
DECLERK. The
 party instituted 
APARTHEID following the 1948
 election and steadfastly pursued a policy of racial
 segregation and suppression of dissent, coupled
 with a sustained, violent attack on South African
 civil and political liberties.

National Recovery Administration (NRA), a U.S. 
NEW

 DEAL agency created in June 1933 by the National
 Industrial Recovery Act, which made an attempt to
 develop industrial self-government, largely by the
 establishment of industrial codes regulating
 business and labor practices. Its 
BLUE EAGLE
 symbol was promoted nationally, and more than 500
 industrial codes were ultimately adopted. The major
 provisions of the enabling act were declared
 unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Schecter
 Poultry Corporation v. United States (1935), and
 the agency then became powerless; it was
 discontinued in January 1936.

National Socialist German Workers' Party, the Nazi
 Party of 
HITLER and Germany.

National Union for the Total Independence of Angola
 (UNITA), group organized in 1966 by Jonas 
SAVIMBI
 that fought the Portuguese in southern Angola until
 victory in 1974. During 1975 it was briefly in
 coalition with the 
POPULAR MOVEMENT FOR THE

 LIBERATION OF ANGOLA (MPLA) and 
THE NATIONAL

 FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA (FNLA), but
 late in 1975 joined the FLNA against the MPLA in
 the 
ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR. It secured substantial
 South African support, including South African
 troop incursions into Angola in pursuit of Namibian
 guerrillas, leading to several battles between
 Cuban and South African forces in Angola. UNITA was
 not a party to the joint Angolan-Cuban-South
 African agreement of August 1988, which declared a
 cease-fire in Namibia and Angola and provided for
 Cuban and South African troop and support pullout.
 UNITA declared that it intended to fight on against
 the Angolan government. A UNITA-MPLA truce was
 signed on June 22, 1989, but held for only 2
 months.

National Youth Administration (NYA), a U.S. 
NEW

 DEAL program, part of the 
WORKS PROGRESS

 ADMINISTRATION (WPA) that supplied part-time jobs
 to large numbers of young people during the
 mid-1930s.

Nationalist China, alternate name for the Republic
 of 
CHINA from 1926 and especially after 1949 on
 Taiwan.

NATO, the initials of the 
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY

 ORGANIZATION, a multinational Western military
 organization established in 1952.

Nauro (Republic of Nauro), until 1918 a German
 colony. The island became a British mandate
 territory in 1919, was occupied by Japanese forces
 during World War II, and became a 
UNITED NATIONS
 trust territory in 1947. It gained independence and
 
COMMONWEALTH status on January 31, 1968.

Nautilus, world's first nuclear-powered submarine,
 launched in 1954, its production largely sparked by
 U.S. admiral Hyman 
RICKOVER. In 1958 it was the
 first ship to reach the 
NORTH POLE underwater.

Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers'
 Party), political organization that began as the
 German Workers' Party in 1919, changed its name in
 1920, and was the party of Adolf 
HITLER from
 1921. The party drew national attention after its
 failed Bavarian 
BEER HALL PUTSCH of November
 1923; while in jail following that attempt, Hitler
 wrote Mein Kampf. It continued to be a minor party
 until the late1920s, when it built substantial
 street-fighting strength, and in 1930 became a
 major factor in the Reichstag. With increasingly
 substantial army and business support in the
 conditions created by the 
GREAT DEPRESSION,
 Hitler and his party won power in 1933, from then
 on turning Germany into an increasingly
 totalitarian, racist state, bent on winning the
 full support of the German people, committing
 genocide against German Jews, and taking Germany
 into a new world war; it did all three.

Nazi-Soviet Pact (German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact,
 August 23-24, 1939), an agreement between Adolf
 
HITLER and Joseph 
STALIN, negotiated and signed
 by Joachim von 
RIBBENTROP and Vyacheslav
 
MOLOTOV, providing for the 
PARTITION OF POLAND
 between Germany and the Soviet Union should the
 Germans attack that country. It contained a secret
 agreement providing a German sphere of influence in
 Lithuania and Soviet spheres of influence in
 Finland, Latvia, Estonia, and Bessarabia. The
 agreement freed Germany to attack Poland, which it
 did on September 1, 1939, beginning World War II.
 On September 17, Soviet troops invaded and took the
 eastern portions of Poland, as provided by the
 treaty. On September 28 the treaty was amended to
 provide further German penetration into Poland and
 a Soviet, rather than German, sphere of influence
 in Lithuania. On October 10 Soviet troops entered
 Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. Finland refused to
 accede to Soviet demands, and on November 30, 1939,
 the Soviet Union invaded Finland, beginning the
 
FINNISH-RUSSIAN WAR.

Negrn, Juan (1894-1956), doctor and professor of
 physiology who became the last prime minister of
 the the Spanish Republic; he was later prime
 minister of the Republican government-in-exile.

Nehru, Jawaharlal (1889-1964), Indian lawyer and
 socialist, who became active in the 
CONGRESS

 PARTY in 1919, after the 
AMRITSAR MASSACRE. He
 and his father, Motilal Nehru, gave up their law
 practices and devoted their lives to the
 independence movement. From the early 1930s he was
 one of Mohatma 
GANDHI'S leading associates. He
 spent a total of 9 years in jail, his final release
 coming in June 1945; he then emerged as Congress
 Party leader in the run-up to Indian independence.
 In 1947 he became the first prime minister of
 India, serving until his death in 1964. As prime
 minister, he pursued a nonaligned course while
 fostering the development of a modern industrial
 economy and a secular, democratic state. His
 daughter was Indira 
GANDHI, and his sister was
 Vijaya 
PANDIT.

Nehru, Motilal (1861-1931), Indian lawyer who, with
 his son, Jawaharlal 
NEHRU, became a committed
 nationalist leader after the 
AMRITSAR MASSACRE of
 1919. He gave up his law practice, was imprisoned
 twice for civil disobedience, and worked closely
 with his son and Mohatma 
GANDHI in the Indian
 independence movement.

Neill, Alexander Sutherland (1883-1973), Scottish
 educator and psychologist who in 1921 founded the
 
SUMMERHILL SCHOOL, a revolutionary self-governing
 school centered on the students rather than on an
 institutional regime.

Nelson, George "Baby Face" (1908-34), psychopathic
 killer, bank robber, and associate of John
 
DILLINGER; killed by Federal Bureau of
 Investigation agents near Barrington, Illinois, on
 November 27, 1934.

Nenni, Pietro (1891-1980), Italian journalist and
 socialist leader, an antifascist who went into
 exile in 1926, fought on the Republican side during
 the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR, and led the Socialist
 party from 1949 to 1969. In coalition with the
 Communists until the 
HUNGARIAN REVOLUTION of
 1956, he then moved into the Christian
 Democratic-Socialist coalition, which dominated
 Italian politics until the mid-1970s.

NEP, the 
NEW ECONOMIC POLICY, introduced by
 
LENIN and followed by the Soviet Union from 1921
 to 1928.

Neptune, planetary target of U.S. space probes,
 flown past by Pioneer 10 on its way out of the
 solar system in 1983 and by Voyager 2 in 1989.
 While studying Neptune early in the century,
 Percival 
LOWELL predicted the existence of the
 planet later found and called 
PLUTO.

Nesbit, Evelyn, the wife of Harry K. 
THAW, and a
 principal player in the triangle that resulted in
 Thaw's 1906 murder of architect Stanford White.

Netherlands East Indies, the former name of
 
INDONESIA (Republic of Indonesia), which became
 an independent nation on August 17, 1945,
 thereafter fought a 4-year-long war of
 independence.

Neto, Augustinho (1922-79), Angolan physician and
 nationalist, active in Angolan freedom movements
 from the early 1950s and in the 
POPULAR MOVEMENT

 FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA (MPLA) from 1957. He
 escaped from a Portuguese prison in 1962, returned
 to Angola to become president of the MPLA, and then
 led the MPLA during the long 
ANGOLAN WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE. On November 11, 1975, after the
 Portuguese had left Angola, Neto announced
 formation of the Soviet-backed People's Republic of
 Angola, with himself as president, ending the
 short-lived three-way coalition of the MPLA, the
 
NATIONAL FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA

 (FNLA), and the 
NATIONAL UNION FOR THE TOTAL

 INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA (UNITA). The 14-year war of
 independence was over; then began the long civil
 war. Neto's presidency ended with his death while
 being treated for cancer in Moscow.

Neuilly, Treaty of (November 27, 1919), the
 Bulgarian peace treaty, following World War I,
 which provided for reparations, territorial
 concessions, and military restrictions on the
 Bulgarian armed forces.

Neumann, John (Janos) von (1903-57),
 Hungarian-American mathematician, who made major
 contributions in mathematics, physics, 
GAME

 THEORY, and 
COMPUTER science. In Europe he did
 key early work on set theory, and in 1926 he wrote
 his groundbreaking Mathematical Foundations of
 Quantum Mechanics. Emigrating to the United States
 in 1930, von Neumann worked at the Institute for
 Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey, from its
 founding in 1933 to his death. There he developed
 mathematical theory basic to analysis of
 continuously varying space (rather than dimensional
 space expressed in whole numbers), introducing a
 "ring of operators" now called Von Neumann
 algebras. His 1920s development of game theory bore
 fruit later in the 1944 Theory of Games and
 Economic Behavior, written with Oskar Morgenstern.
 It was von Neumann who, in 1946, first suggested
 the use of stored programs in computers, as opposed
 to rewiring for each new task, as was necessary in
 ENIAC. In his 1946 paper "Preliminary Discussion of
 Logical Design of an Electronic Computing
 Instrument," written with two others, he set the
 pattern for the development of 
DIGITAL COMPUTERS.
 A U.S. military adviser during World War II, he
 built a special computer called MANIAC
 (
Mathematical 
Analyzer, 
Numerical
 
Integrator, 
And 
Computer), which provided the
 mathematical calculating power necessary for the
 development of the 
HYDROGEN BOMB; he also served
 on the 
ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION from 1954. Even
 after his death, a late work titled Theory of
 Self-Reproducing Automata, published in 1966, broke
 new ground in the discussion of 
CYBERNETICS and
 
ROBOTS.

neutrino, chargeless and nearly or wholly massless
 subatomic 
PARTICLE, proposed first by Wolfgang
 
PAULI in 1930 to account for a seeming
 mass-energy imbalance in the 
ATOMIC STRUCTURE and
 first found in 1956. Given off as part of the
 
RADIOACTIVE decay of a 
NEUTRON, it is the focus
 of much research as a clue to the origin of the
 universe.

neutron, 
PARTICLE in an atom's 
NUCLEUS, similar
 to a 
PROTON, but with no electric charge. First
 posited by William Draper Hawkins in 1921, it was
 discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, and placed in
 the 
ATOMIC STRUCTURE by 1948. Experiments in
 bombarding elements with neutrons, by Enrico
 
FERMI and others in the 1930s, disclosed the
 possibility of 
NUCLEAR FISSION with 
URANIUM,
 the result being a self-sustaining 
CHAIN REACTION
 of neutron bombardment, as in an 
ATOMIC BOMB or a
 
NUCLEAR REACTOR. Stars composed mostly of
 neutrons, probably 
PULSARS, occupy a late stage
 in 
STELLAR EVOLUTION. By the early 1960s
 scientists had found that the neutron was not an
 indivisible particle but included other smaller
 particles, including 
NEUTRINOS.

Never in the course of human history was so much
 owed by so many to so few, statement by British
 prime minister Winston 
CHURCHILL, speaking to the
 House of Commons on August 20, 1940, in praise of
 the Royal Air Force during the 
BATTLE OF BRITAIN.


New Deal, phrase coined by Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT in his speech accepting the
 presidential nomination at the Chicago Democratic
 National Convention on July 2, 1932: "I pledge you,
 I pledge myself, a new deal for the American
 people." In the years that followed, "New Deal"
 became a slogan to describe the whole program of
 economic and social reforms introduced during the
 Roosevelt era, which included a quick 
BANK

 HOLIDAY, the end of 
PROHIBITION, and
 establishment of the 
NATIONAL RECOVERY

 ADMINISTRATION (NRA) and the 
AGRICULTURAL

 ADJUSTMENT ADMINISTRATION (AAA), both of the
 latter declared unconstitutional in their early
 forms, but greatly stimulative during their
 lifetimes. The New Deal also initiated the
 
CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS (CCC), PUBLIC WORKS

 ADMINISTRATION (PWA), FEDERAL EMERGENCY RELIEF

 ADMINISTRATION, WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION

 (WPA), FEDERAL DEPOSIT INSURANCE CORPORATION

 (FDIC), HOME OWNERS LOAN CORPORATION (HOLC), the
 
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY (TVA), and 
SOCIAL

 SECURITY. Effective securities regulation began
 with establishment of the 
SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE

 COMMISSION. Labor organization was encouraged by
 passage of the 
WAGNER ACT and establishment of
 the 
NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD, which were
 followed by a wave of industrial organization.

New Economic Policy (NEP; 1921-28), a set of
 policies successfully instituted by 
LENIN in
 1921, after the famine and political strains caused
 by 
WAR COMMUNISM. They were aimed at providing
 private sector incentives that would better supply
 food and other consumer goods to a starving and
 restless Soviet people.

New Fourth Army Incident (January 6, 1941), an
 attack by Nationalist troops on the headquarters of
 the Communist New Fourth Army during the period of
 the united front against Japan. The Communist force
 was destroyed, with thousands of casualties, and
 resumption of the civil war was narrowly averted.


New Freedom, a slogan developed by Woodrow 
WILSON
 during the U.S. presidential campaign of 1912,
 calling for increased antitrust regulation, better
 organization of the American banking system, and
 reduced and reorganized tariffs.

New Frontier, a slogan coined by John F. 
KENNEDY
 in his speech accepting the presidential nomination
 at the Democratic National Convention of 1960,
 calling in general terms for a move to meet new
 challenges facing the American people in the years
 ahead. The slogan was not translated into a
 specific legislative program, as were the 
NEW

 DEAL of Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT and the 
FAIR

 DEAL of Harry S. 
TRUMAN, his Democratic
 predecessors.

New Georgia, Battle of (July-August 1943), World
 War II amphibious landings by U.S. troops on this
 major Japanese base in the Solomon Islands, which
 led to a month of heavy jungle fighting, followed
 by almost a month of mop-up operations. By late
 August, Allied forces held the entire island of New
 Georgia.

New Guinea campaign of 1944 (April-July 1944),
 World War II Allied attack on Japanese-held western
 New Guinea; in late April, U.S. troops landed near
 the large Japanese base at Hollandia, captured the
 Aitape airfield, and took Hollandia. From May
 through July, further Japanese bases were captured;
 the remaining Japanese retreated into the jungle
 for the rest of the war.

New Hebrides, a former joint British-French colony
 that became the new nation of 
VANUATU on July 30,
 1980.

New Left, a term generally applied to the U.S.
 radical student movement of the 1960s and early
 1970s, led most visibly by the 
STUDENTS FOR A

 DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY but including a wide range of
 other activist student organizations and
 individuals. The New Left was heavily involved in
 student protests against the 
VIETNAM WAR, and in
 such student demonstrations and movements as the
 
BERKELEY FREE SPEECH MOVEMENT, the 
COLUMBIA

 SIT-INS, and the several marches on Washington.
 Its members were deeply influenced by the thinking
 of such academics, writers, and revolutionaries as
 Herbert 
MARCUSE, Franz 
FANON, C. Wright
 
MILLS, and Che 
GUEVARA.

New London school explosion (March 18, 1937),
 explosion that destroyed the consolidated school in
 New London, Texas, where raw gas was being
 improperly used in place of more expensive natural
 gas. The school filled with odorless, highly
 explosive gas that was somehow touched off, killing
 413 children and 14 teachers.

New Nationalism, The, title of a 1910 speech by
 Theodore 
ROOSEVELT at Osawatomie, Kansas, in
 which he called for much increased federal welfare
 programs and greater corporate regulation. It
 provided much of the basis for his platform as
 unsuccessful 
BULL MOOSE PARTY presidential
 candidate in the election of 1912.

New People's Army, a Filipino Maoist guerrilla army
 founded in 1969 as the armed force of the Communist
 Party of the Philippines-Marxist-Leninist. It
 mounted a nationwide guerrilla insurgency against
 the Philippine government, despite attempts by
 Corazon 
AQUINO's administration to negotiate with
 the insurgents, freeing major insurgent leaders as
 a gesture of good will.

New Right, a conservative, mainly
 evangelical-Christian-based U.S. political movement
 that developed in the mid-1970s, coalesced around
 the 
MORAL MAJORITY organization founded by the
 Reverend Jerry 
FALWELL in 1979, and grew into a
 major political force during the administrations of
 President Ronald 
REAGAN, whom it generally
 supported. It focused on such issues as the 
RIGHT

 TO LIFE, school prayer, anticommunism, opposition
 to the 
EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT and other
 feminist-supported issues, and pornography.

New York City Parking Violations Bureau scandal, a
 1986 municipal corruption case involving Bronx
 borough president Stanley M. Friedman, Queens
 borough president Donald Manes, city officials
 Michael Lazar, Lester Shafran, and Geoffrey G.
 Lindenauer, and businessman Marvin Kaplan. Manes
 committed suicide in March 1986; Lindenauer turned
 state's evidence; Friedman, Lazar, Shafran, and
 Kaplan were found guilty. The scandal, along with
 several lesser New York municipal scandals of the
 period, severely damaged the administration of New
 York City mayor Edward Koch.

New York Times Company v. Sullivan (1964), a
 landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision, providing
 that a public official must prove "actual malice"
 to be able to win damages for libel.

Newton, Huey Percy (1942-89) , U.S. Black activist
 of the 1960s, a founder of the 
BLACK PANTHER

 PARTY in 1966. Newton was involved in a series of
 violent incidents during the late 1960s; he was
 imprisoned (1968-70), freed on appeal, fled abroad
 to avoid a murder charge in 1974, and was
 exonerated after his return to face trial in 1979.


Nguyen That Thanh, the given name of Vietnamese
 leader 
HO CHI MINH.

Nhu, Ngo Dinh (1910-63), brother of 
NGO DINH

 DIEM, and head of the South Vietnamese secret
 police until the army coup of 1963. He and his
 brother were executed the day after the coup.

Nicaraguan Civil War (1978-88), a continuing
 low-level guerrilla war was conducted by
 Cuban-supported 
SANDINISTA forces against the
 
SOMOZA government from 1961. In 1978, as
 opposition to the dictatorship grew, Sandinista
 forces were able to mount major attacks against
 government forces, briefly seize the national
 palace, and effectuate a hostages-for-prisoners
 exchange with the government. In the spring of
 1979, Sandinista forces mounted a successful
 offensive; Somoza fled into exile on July 17, and a
 Sandanista government took power on July 19. Former
 government forces, operating largely in the north
 out of bases in Honduras, with substantial U.S.
 support, became guerrilla insurgents known as
 
CONTRAS (Againsts). Contra groups also formed in
 the south; these were composed mainly of former
 Sandinistas, in opposition after finding the new
 government turning sharply toward authoritarianism.
 A long insurgency developed; but the insurgents
 made little headway, and in the late 1980s they
 found U.S. public opinion turning against providing
 further aid, a trend that became decisive after the
 emergence of the 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR. The
 cease-fire of March 1988 effectively ended the
 civil war, though some sporadic fighting continued.
 The democratic elections of February 1990, toppled
 the Sandinista government, opening a new chapter in
 Nicaraguan history.

Nicholas II (1868-1918), the last Romanov emperor
 (czar) of Russia. He became czar in 1894,
 succeeding his father, Alexander III, and ruled
 Russia through the lost 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR and
 the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905. After that
 revolution, his 
OCTOBER MANIFESTO instituted a
 modified constitutional government, but by 1907 he
 had veered once again toward autocracy. He led
 Russia to defeat in World War I, was deposed by the
 
FEBRUARY REVOLUTION of 1917, and abdicated on
 March 15, 1917; he and his family then became
 prisoners of the 
PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT. After
 the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION, on July 16, 1918, he, his
 wife (Alexandra Fyodorovna), and their family were
 killed at Sverdlovsk (then Yekaterinburg) by their
 
BOLSHEVIK captors. Afterward there was some
 dispute as to whether or not one of their children,
 
ANASTASIA, had survived.

Niebuhr, Reinhold (1892-1971), U.S. Protestant
 minister, educator, and philosopher, an exponent of
 political realism within the context of religiously
 based ethics, whose thinking deeply influenced
 three generations of American and British political
 leaders. He was a socialist and pacifist in the
 early 1930s, but from the mid-1930s he advocated
 violent resistance to fascism, if necessary, and
 supported World War II. In 1952 he was a founder of
 
AMERICANS FOR DEMOCRATIC ACTION (ADA).

Niemoller, Martin (1892-1984), German Protestant
 leader who in 1934, with Karl 
BARTH, formed a
 coalition of anti-Nazi church leaders called the
 Synod of Barmen. A German submarine commander in
 World War I, later a Protestant minister, Niemoller
 was arrested in 1937 for his strong and public
 opposition to the Nazis and Adolf 
HITLER. Freed
 from 
DACHAU in 1945, he then became a major
 church leader and pacifist, speaking against German
 involvement in the 
COLD WAR.

Niger (Republic of Niger), until 1958 a French
 colony, although strong Taureg resistance and weak
 French colonial commitments to this very poor
 country made French control of the interior desert
 regions tenuous. Niger was granted internal
 autonomy in 1958 and became an independent state on
 August 3, 1960.

Nigeria (Federal Republic of Nigeria), until 1954 a
 British colony; it first gained internal autonomy,
 then became an independent state and 
COMMONWEALTH
 member on October 1, 1960. It became a republic in
 1963. In 1967 ethnic tensions generated the
 
NIGERIA-BIAFRA WAR.

Nigeria-Biafra Civil War (1967-70), conflict that
 began with the secession of the eastern region of
 Nigeria, led by Ibo military governor Chukwuemeka
 Odumegwu 
OJUKWU, on May 20, 1967, after a series
 of coups and countercoups had fanned long-standing
 tensions between the mostly northern Moslem peoples
 and mostly southern Christian Ibos. Thousands of
 Ibos in the northern portions of the country had
 been massacred, and hundreds of thousands more fled
 into the Ibo eastern region. Ojukwu became
 president of the new state of Biafra; the Nigerian
 government, led by Yakubu 
GOWON, refused to
 accept the Biafran secession. A bitter civil war
 followed, with the deaths of an estimated 1.5-2
 million before the war ended with Biafran surrender
 on January 15, 1970. Most of those who died were
 noncombatants, many of them children, who succumbed
 to starvation and disease despite a worldwide
 Biafran relief effort.

Night of the Long Knives (June 29-30, 1934), the
 date of the 
BLOOD PURGE in Germany, when the
 leading Nazi 
STORM TROOPERS (SA) were killed, by
 
HITLER's order, to please the rival SS.

Nimbus, U. S. weather 
SATELLITE system from the
 late 1960s.

Nimeiry, Gaafar Mohammed al- (1930- ), Sudanese
 officer who led a successful young officers' coup
 in 1969, achieved full power in 1971, and
 thereafter ruled a one-party Sudanese state along
 increasingly Moslem fundamentalist lines. In 1972
 he granted autonomy to the predominantly Christian
 and animist Black provinces of the south,
 temporarily halting the then 17-year-old 
SUDANESE

 CIVIL WAR. Faced with difficult economic problems
 that were exacerbated by the presence of an
 estimated l million refugees from Ethiopia and Chad
 and with increasing internal opposition to his
 severe Islamic law policies, he was deposed in a
 1985 military coup.

Nimitz, Chester William (1885-1966), U.S. naval
 officer who took command of the Pacific Fleet after
 
PEARL HARBOR and directed it through the crucial
 Battle of the 
CORAL SEA and the decisive Battle
 of 
MIDWAY. His forces captured 
GUADALCANAL and
 in 1943 began a sustained series of offensives in
 the Pacific, ultimately taking the air war to the
 Japanese homeland. He ended the war as fleet
 admiral in command of by far the largest navy in
 the world.

1984, a 
GEORGE ORWELL novel (1949), in which a
 viciously manipulative totalitarian state,
 masquerading as a Utopia, is exemplified by the
 slogan 
BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU, seen
 everywhere.

Nineteenth Amendment, the 
WOMAN SUFFRAGE
 amendment to the Constitution of the United States,
 stating that "the right of citizens of the United
 States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by
 the United States or by any state on account of
 sex." It was introduced in 1887 and ultimately
 ratified in 1920.

Nivelle, Robert Georges (1856-1924), French World
 War I general who became the victorious hero of the
 second Battle of 
VERDUN in June 1916. However,
 his much-heralded offensive of April 1917 failed,
 costing France an estimated 120,000 casualties; he
 was replaced as commander of the French northern
 armies.

Nivelle Offensive (April 16-20, 1917), a powerful
 World War I French offensive in the Champagne
 region, with 1,200,000 men in the attacking French
 armies. It failed completely, with heavy losses,
 and was followed by massive 
FRENCH ARMY MUTINIES.


Nixon, Richard Milhous (1913- ), U.S. lawyer, a
 California Republican congressman (1947-51) and
 senator (1951-53), vice- president under Dwight
 
EISENHOWER (1953-61), and 37th president of the
 United States (1969-74). Nixon was defeated by John
 F. 
KENNEDY in the presidential election of 1960;
 he defeated Democrats Hubert H. 
HUMPHREY in 1968,
 and George 
MCGOVERN in 1972, resigning in 1974 to
 avoid impeachment, after his role in the
 
WATERGATE scandal had been revealed. As a
 congressman and senator, he was one of the leading
 anti-Communists of the 
MCCARTHY period, from his
 position as a member of the 
HOUSE UN-AMERICAN

 ACTIVITIES COMMITTEE. As president, he and his
 secretary of state, Henry 
KISSINGER, continued to
 try to end the 
VIETNAM WAR while still
 prosecuting the war: they mounted substantial
 operations in Cambodia and Laos, mined North
 Vietnamese harbors, and increased the bombing of
 North Vietnam. Peace was not attained, but a
 negotiated American withdrawal from the countries
 in the area occurred during 1973. In February 1972,
 he accomplished a new American 
OPENING TO CHINA,
 following it with much improved Chinese-American
 relations. In May 1972 he concluded a 
STRATEGIC

 ARMS LIMITATIONS TREATY with the Soviet Union, and
 in a series of summit meetings concluded nuclear
 arms and other agreements aimed at reducing
 tensions between the two superpowers. Domestically,
 his administration sponsored few legislative
 initiatives, being preoccupied with foreign affairs
 and facing a great deal of antagonism in Congress
 and out in the country because of continuing
 American involvement in the Vietnam War. During the
 early 1970s, he and those around him became deeply
 involved in efforts to identify and suppress
 opposition, involving themselves and the national
 security agencies in a series of wiretap and
 surveillance activities, some of which surfaced
 during prosecution of the 
PENTAGON PAPERS case,
 and many more of which surfaced when the White
 House "plumbers" were captured during the
 
WATERGATE break-in. After the easy presidential
 reelection of 1972, a number of illegal acts and
 subsequent illegal attempts to cover up those acts
 were revealed by media investigators and the
 
WATERGATE COMMITTEE, ultimately resulting in the
 convictions of many of those who had functioned in
 and around the White House in the Nixon years.
 About to be impeached, Nixon resigned instead. His
 elected vice-president, Spiro 
AGNEW, having had
 to resign, Nixon was succeeded by his appointed
 vice- president, Gerald R. 
FORD, on August 9,
 1974, receiving a pardon from President Ford in
 September 1974.

Nixon-Brezhnev summits, a series of three early
 1970s summit meetings between U.S. president
 Richard M. 
NIXON and Soviet premier Leonid
 
BREZHNEV. The May 1972 Moscow meeting resulted in
 a signed 
SALT I agreement and several other arms
 limitation and mutual cooperation agreements. The
 June 1973 Washington meeting resulted in several
 minor agreements and statements of principle
 furthering the 
DETENTE process. The June 1974
 Moscow meeting failed to make any substantial
 arms-reduction progress, but some minor agreements
 were signed.

Nkomo, Joshua (1917- ), Zimbabwean nationalist
 leader, head of several successive parties in
 Rhodesia, including the Zimbabwe African People's
 Union (ZAPU), before his imprisonment (1964-74). He
 emerged from imprisonment to lead his party into
 intensified guerrilla war against the Rhodesian
 government, and in 1976 into an effective but
 always troubled Patriotic Front coalition with the
 Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), led by
 Robert 
MUGABE. The two organizations ran separate
 slates in the 1980 elections, ZANU winning and
 Mugabe becoming prime minister and then president
 of Zimbabwe. Nkomo joined the government, but
 guerrilla warfare then began between ZAPU and ZANU
 forces; he was forced out of government in 1984.
 His party was merged into ZANU in 1987, as Zimbabwe
 became a one-party state, and Nkomo rejoined the
 Mugabe government.

Nkrumah, Kwame (Francis Nwia Kofi; 1909-72),
 Ghanian political scientist, who became a
 pan-African student leader in the United States in
 the early 1940s. He returned home in 1947, and
 organized the Convention People's party in 1949,
 leading it to power in 1951 after having been
 imprisoned for nationalist agitation. He became
 prime minister of the Gold Coast in 1951, of Ghana
 when independence was achieved in 1957, and first
 president of the Republic of Ghana in 1960. In
 those years he also became one of the leading
 pan-African Black leaders of his time. As president
 of Ghana, he attempted to build socialism,
 developed a repressive one-party state, and was
 deposed in 1966, thereafter continuing to be a
 powerful pan-African leader and writer from
 sanctuary in Guinea.

NKVD (People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs),
 the massive national Soviet secret police
 organization, the chief instrument used by Joseph
 
STALIN to carry out the 
GREAT PURGE of 1934-39,
 as well as other acts of repression. The NKVD was
 the successor organization to the 
OGPU, itself a
 successor of the original Soviet secret police, the
 
CHEKA. These functions were later taken over by
 successor organizations, from 1952 by the KGB.

NLRB, the initials of the 
NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS

 BOARD, originally a 
NEW DEAL U.S. federal agency
 created by the 
WAGNER ACT.

NMR imager (
Nuclear 
Magnetic 
Resonance
 imager, also called MRI, or 
Magnetic 
Resonance
 
Imager), medical diagnostic device that, like a
 
CAT SCAN, takes pictures of the body at different
 planes. But where a CAT scan reflects the
 
ELECTRON density of tissues, involves
 
RADIATION, and must physically move the camera to
 photograph different sections of the body, the NMR
 reflects 
PROTON density, uses no radiation but
 instead variations in absorption of high-frequency
 radio waves in electromagnetic fields by the nuclei
 of different atoms, and can angle its camera
 electronically. The NMR, introduced in Britain in
 1973, has less sharp pictures than the CAT scan,
 but NMR images are more useful medically, providing
 better information to physicians about the
 biological and chemical state of the tissues.

Nobile, Umberto (1885-1978), Italian aviator and
 explorer who, in 1926, with Roald 
AMUNDSEN and
 Lincoln 
ELLSWORTH, first flew over the 
NORTH

 POLE in a dirigible. Two years later, Amundsen
 lost his life on a flight to rescue Nobile, who
 survived to lead many Arctic expeditions for both
 Italy and the U.S.S.R.

Noel-Baker, Philip John (1889-1982), British
 pacifist and socialist, an Olympic silver medalist
 in 1920, a Quaker noncombatant ambulance driver in
 World War I, Labour member of parliament (1929-31,
 1936-70), and a lifelong campaigner for world
 peace. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in
 1959. After his unsuccessful quest for peace during
 the interwar period, he supported the British World
 War II war effort, later held several posts in the
 postwar Labour government, and became a leading
 postwar advocate of multilateral nuclear
 disarmament.

No Man's Land, the strip of land, as little as 30
 yards wide in some places, that ran the length of
 the German and Allied systems of fortifications
 from Switzerland to the North Sea on the Western
 Front during World War I.

Nomura, Kichisaburo (1887-1964), Japanese naval
 officer and diplomat, who became ambassador to the
 United States in 1939 and was engaged in
 negotiations with the American government in
 Washington when the surprise Japanese attack on
 
PEARL HARBOR took place. He was then interned and
 returned to Japan in 1942.

Nonaligned Movement, an international organization
 established in 1961, now consisting of more than
 100 mostly 
THIRD WORLD African, Asian, and Latin
 American member countries; at its inception it
 focused on anticolonialism, and during the 1970s
 and 1980s added economic goals as an additional
 main focus, with special attention to the problem
 of third-world debt.

Norgay, Tenzing (1914-86), Sherpa mountaineer who,
 with Edmund 
HILLARY, first reached the top of Mt.
 Everest, the world's highest mountain, arriving on
 May 29, 1953, after almost reaching it with another
 climber the year before.

Noriega, Manuel Antonio (1938- ), Panamanian
 officer, head of intelligence from 1970, head of
 the armed forces from 1982, and in effect head of
 government and dictator of Panama from 1982.
 Noriega cooperated closely with U.S. Latin American
 military and intelligence operations during the
 1970s and 1980s while at the same time engaging in
 highly profitable drug trade operations on behalf
 of one or more Latin American drug cartels. He was
 indicted on drug trade-connected charges in Florida
 in February 1988, triggering a major confrontation
 with the United States and massive but unsuccessful
 anti-Noriega demonstrations in Panama. These were
 followed by several unsuccessful coup attempts as
 negotiations to speed his departure broke down. He
 ran a fraudulent presidential election in 1989,
 nullifying that election after it became clear that
 his candidate had lost, as attested by independent
 observers who included former U.S. president Jimmy
 
CARTER. Noriega was deposed by the U.S. invasion
 of December 20, 1989. He took refuge in the Vatican
 Panama City embassy on December 24, and surrendered
 to U.S. forces on January 3, and was then taken to
 the United States to stand trial on longstanding
 drug charges.

Normandy invasion (D-Day, June 6, 1944), late World
 War II invasion of Europe by the 
ALLIES.
 Following the plans detailed in 
OPERATION

 OVERLORD, an invasion fleet of more than 5,000
 ships crossed the English Channel to Normandy on
 June 6. After the fleet and thousands of aircraft
 had bombarded coastal fortifications, Allied
 assault forces landed on five beaches, designated
 Utah, Omaha, Juno, Sword, and Gold; three airborne
 divisions were dropped inland. All of the landings
 succeeded, although there was substantial
 resistance on Omaha Beach, and by nightfall all
 five beachheads had been secured. Allied troops
 then slowly moved inland against well-fortified,
 strong opposition, although the Germans withheld
 crucial armored divisions for a time, thinking that
 the main Allied thrust would come at their heavily
 fortified positions at the Pas de Calais, the
 shortest way across the Channel. By early July,
 Allied forces l million strong were in France. In
 late July, Allied forces broke through German
 defenses at St. Lo, and by late August the Allies
 had liberated Paris and advanced to the Seine,
 having taken Brussels and Antwerp. By mid-September
 1944, Allied troops faced the Germans on the
 
SIEGFRIED LINE.

Noronic disaster (September 17, 1949), killing of
 128 people when the Canadian Great Lakes cruise
 ship 
NORONIC caught fire while docked at Toronto;
 its passengers were caught aboard when the single
 exit from the ship was blocked by the fire.

Norris, George William (1861-1944), U.S. lawyer, a
 Nebraska Republican congressman 1903-13 and senator
 1913-43. In 1910 Norris was a leader of the fight
 against the rule of speaker Joseph Cannon in the
 House of Representatives. He opposed American entry
 into World War I and the postwar 
LEAGUE OF

 NATIONS. Domestically, he was a progressive
 Republican, a sponsor of the 
NORRIS-LA GUARDIA

 ANTI-INJUNCTION ACT of 1932 and of the 
TENNESSEE

 VALLEY AUTHORITY (TVA), which gave his name to its
 first dam.

Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act (1932), U.S.
 federal legislation affirming the right to organize
 unions, specifically making "yellow dog
 contracts"-by which workers agreed that union
 membership would be grounds for
 dismissal-unenforceable, and thereby severely
 limiting the use of anti-union injunctions in labor
 disputes.

North, Oliver Laurence (1943- ), U.S. Marine
 officer who saw service in Vietnam, 1968-69, and
 from 1981 was attached to the National Security
 Council (NSC) as deputy director of the military
 affairs bureau; he was dismissed on November 25,
 1986, for his role in the 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR.
 During those years, working out of the White House,
 he was involved in many covert operations,
 considerably beyond those of the Iran-Contra
 affair. In July 1987, his testimony before the
 Iran-Contra congressional investigating committees
 was nationally televised, and for a short time he
 became a major celebrity. After a 14-month grand
 jury investigation directed by federal special
 prosecutor Lawrence E. Walsh, North was indicted on
 Iran-Contra-connected charges, on March 14, 1988.
 He left the marine corps on March 16, and began a
 series of lecture tours to muster financial and
 popular support. In May 1989, after a long trial,
 he was convicted on three felony counts in
 connection with the Iran-Contra Affair.

North Africa, final campaign in (April 1-May 13,
 1943), last World War II engagements in North
 Africa. During most of April 1943 strengthening
 Allied forces pursued retreating Axis forces, in
 late April engaging and in early May defeating the
 remaining German and Italian armies in North
 Africa. On May 7 Tunis fell, and in the next week
 an estimated 250,000 German and Italian troops
 surrendered, ending the war in North Africa.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), an
 international military organization established in
 1949, pursuant to the terms of the North Atlantic
 Treaty, and providing a framework for joint Allied
 military activities in Europe in the event of
 Soviet military action. Its 16 member countries are
 Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Federal Republic
 of Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Italy,
 Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,
 Spain, Turkey, and the United States.

Northcliffe (Alfred Harmsworth, Lord Northcliffe;
 1865-1922), British publisher, who pioneered in
 developing a popular, sensationalist press and in
 the process built the largest publishing
 organization of his time, ultimately controlling
 the The Times of London, the Daily Mail, the
 Evening Standard, the Sunday Dispatch, The
 Observer, and scores of other publications.

Northeast Passage, seaway north of Eurasia between
 the Atlantic and the Pacific; an ice-clogged route,
 it was traversed only once before the 20th century
 but was turned into a major seaway in the 1930s.
 Boris Vilkitski, starting in 1914, and Roald
 
AMUNDSEN, starting in 1918, were only the second
 and third explorers to sail the route, both having
 to winter over because of ice. In 1932 the Soviet
 ship Sibiriakov first traveled the Northeast
 Passage without wintering over. The Russians then
 fielded a fleet of ice-breakers to keep open the
 sealane they call the Northern Sea Route. The
 passage was a vital route for supplies in World War
 II, and is now generally kept open from June to
 October.

Northern Expedition (1926-28), the 
KUOMINTANG
 offensive north from Canton, which, with Soviet aid
 and advice, quickly captured Hankow, Nanking, and
 Shanghai; its first phase ended with the
 Kuomintang-Communist split and the 
SHANGHAI

 MASSACRE. The drive north resumed in the spring of
 1928, ending with the defeat of the armies of the
 northern warlords; Peking was taken in June 1928.


Northern Ireland (Ulster), six northern Irish
 counties; until the settlement of the 
IRISH WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE, in 1921, they were part of the
 United Kingdom, then became an autonomous province.
 In 1972, as the 
NORTHERN IRELAND CIVIL WAR
 worsened, direct British rule over Northern Ireland
 was reinstituted.

Northern Ireland Civil War (1969- ), unrest in
 Northern Ireland that grew into substantial
 demonstrations in 1968; in 1969, major
 demonstrations and a long, terrorist-oriented
 guerrilla insurgency was mounted by the
 
PROVISIONAL IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (Provisionals),
 which had broken away from the 
IRISH REPUBLICAN

 ARMY. In August 1969, British forces were sent to
 Northern Ireland and have been there ever since, in
 divisional strength. On January 30, 1972, 
BLOODY

 SUNDAY, British troops killed 13 unarmed Catholic
 demonstrators in Londonderry, sharply escalating
 the level of violence; in March 1972 the British
 government imposed direct rule on Northern Ireland.
 The guerrilla war continued, with terrorist actions
 in Northern Ireland, Ireland, Great Britain, and on
 the mainland of Europe, drawing counteraction by
 Protestant Irish paramilitary and guerrilla forces
 and continuing armed British rule in a cycle
 unbroken in two decades of war.

Northern Peru earthquake (May 31, 1970), an
 earthquake that destroyed many populated places
 throughout northern Peru and set off the Mount
 Huascaran avalanche; in all, an estimated
 50,000-70,000 died, with enormous attendant
 physical damage.

Northern Rhodesia, a former British protectorate,
 in 1953 it became part of the Federation of
 Rhodesia and Nyasaland, and gained independence as
 the new nation of 
ZAMBIA on October 24, 1964.

Northern Sea Route, Soviet name for the 
NORTHEAST

 PASSAGE.

Northern Securities v. United States (1904), a
 landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision, breaking up
 the railroad holding company controlled by J.
 Pierpont 
MORGAN and James J. 
HILL that held
 most American railroad lines between Chicago and
 the Pacific Northwest. It was a major victory for
 the trust-busting activities of President Theodore
 
ROOSEVELT.

North Pole, northern end of the Earth's axis,
 target of numerous landmark 20th-century
 expeditions. From 1898 Robert E. 
PEARY made
 several attempts to reach it; he was finally
 successful in 1909 though some disputed his claim
 even into the 1980's. The first flights over the
 North Pole occurred in 1926, when Richard E. 
BYRD
 and his co-pilot, Floyd 
BENNETT, made the trip by
 airplane; Roald 
AMUNDSEN, Lincoln 
ELLSWORTH,
 and Umberto 
NOBILE also arrived in a 
DIRIGIBLE
 in 1926. Both claims were later disputed by some.
 The U.S. nuclear submarine Nautilus was the first
 ship to cross the North Pole underwater, in 1958; 2
 years later, the U.S. Skate was the first to
 surface at the North Pole. In 1977 the Soviet
 icebreaker Arktika was the first surface vessel to
 reach the North Pole.

Northwest Passage, sea route north of North America
 between the Atlantic and Pacific, long sought by
 American explorers and first traversed in 1903-06
 by Roald 
AMUNDSEN in his sloop Gjoa. Knut
 
RASMUSSEN was the first to trace the route by
 dogsled (1921-24), from Greenland across to Point
 Barrow, Alaska. In 1940-42 the Canadian ship St.
 Roch was the first to travel west to east on the
 route. The ice-clogged seaway was too difficult for
 regular use, however, and not until the 1960s, with
 the discovery of oil in northern Alaska, did the
 first commercial ship journey through the passage;
 it was the American specially built ice-breaking
 tanker, Manhattan, in 1969.

Norway (Kingdom of Norway), until 1905 a Swedish
 territory; Norway became an independent state on
 September 23, 1905.

Norway, Battle of (April-June 1940), invasion of
 Norway by Germany early in World War II, beginning
 with an attack on April 9, 1940. By April 10,
 German troops had landed on both coasts, had taken
 Oslo by air and sea, and were pushing inland with
 air support against small Norwegian defense forces
 with negligible air support. On October 14, Allied
 troops without significant air support landed near
 Trondheim and Narvik, but soon all but the Narvik
 positions were evacuated because of heavy air
 attacks. From late April through late May,
 reinforced Allied forces numbering an estimated
 25,000 men attacked and then took Narvik, but the
 Allies evacuated Narvik and ended the Norway
 campaign June 8-9, because of the massive German
 successes in Western Europe, which made their
 position untenable.

Novorossisk collision (August 31-September 1,
 1986), a nighttime collision between the freighter
 Pyotr Vasev and the cruise ship Admiral Nakhimov,
 on the Black Sea near the Soviet city of
 Novorossisk; 398 people were killed.

Novotny, Antonn (1904-75), Czech Communist Party
 leader, who fought in the Czech underground early
 in World War II and was imprisoned by the Nazis
 1941-45; he then became a party leader in the
 postwar period. Succeeding Klement 
GOTTWALD as
 head of the party in 1953, he continued Gottwald's
 repressive policies, attempted some very modest
 reforms under heavy popular pressure in 1967, and
 was replaced by reformer Alexander 
DUBCEK in
 1968.

NOW, initials of the 
NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR

 WOMEN, by which that feminist organization,
 founded in 1966, is best known.

Noyon-Montdidier Offensive (June 9-13, 1918), the
 fourth of five major German offensives in 1918.
 German troops attacking toward Paris advanced only
 9 miles against strong French resistance, which
 stopped the offensive with heavy German casualties.


NRA, the initials of the 
NATIONAL RECOVERY

 ADMINISTRATION, by which this 
NEW DEAL U.S.
 federal agency of the 1930s was best known, its
 symbol being the 
BLUE EAGLE.

Nu, U (1907- ), Burmese teacher, socialist, and
 nationalist leader who was active in anti-British
 activities during the 1930s and joined the Japanese
 during World War II; he became foreign minister of
 the Japanese-sponsored Burmese puppet government,
 1943-45. After the assassination of 
AUNG SAN in
 July 1947, he became chief Burmese independence
 negotiator and in January 1948 the first prime
 minister of Burma. He held power until the army
 takeover of June 1958, dealing with multiple
 continuing insurgencies, maintaining Burma's
 nonaligned position, and beginning to build a
 national social welfare network. The army
 relinquished power in 1960, and U Nu again became
 prime minister, this time only until the Ne 
WIN
 army coup of March 1962, after which he was
 imprisoned until 1966, and then went into exile. He
 was allowed to return to Burma in 1980. In 1988 he
 emerged as one of the leaders of the new popular
 opposition to the military government, though his
 attempt to form a provisional government failed.

Nuclear Accidents Agreement (1971), a U.S.-U.S.S.R.
 agreement providing for notification in the case of
 a nuclear accident that might cause a nuclear
 weapon to explode, missile launchings seemingly
 aimed at the other superpower, or detection of any
 other nuclear activity of concern to either nation;
 it was aimed at reducing the risk of accidental
 nuclear war.

nuclear energy, energy binding together the
 
PARTICLES in an atom's nucleus, released when the
 atom changes form-either in a slow, natural
 process; in a controlled process, as in a 
NUCLEAR

 REACTOR; or in an artificially induced, speeded-up
 process, as in 
NUCLEAR FISSION or 
NUCLEAR

 FUSION.

nuclear fission, process by which 
NUCLEAR ENERGY
 is released when an atom absorbs an extra 
NEUTRON
 into its 
NUCLEUS, becomes unstable, and then
 splits into two nuclei. Ernest 
RUTHERFORD first
 split a nucleus in 1919; in the 1930s Enrico
 
FERMI systematically bombarded elements with
 neutrons, observing their effects; and German
 researchers Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassman, Lise
 Meitner, and Otto Richard Frisch focused
 specifically on 
URANIUM, the latter two using a
 
CLOUD CHAMBER to photograph the tracks following
 the splitting of uranium. In 1939 Meitner, by then
 exiled from Germany by the Nazis, published the
 first report describing the process, naming it
 "nuclear fission." Also in 1939, Frederic
 
JOLIOT-CURIE and others suggested the possibility
 of a 
CHAIN REACTION; that is, if extra neutrons
 are released, then more and more atoms are split,
 in a self-sustaining process. That same year Niels
 
BOHR, John Wheeler, and others found that fission
 mainly occurred with 
URANIUM 235 (U-235), a rare
 
ISOTOPE of uranium 238 (U-238). In 1940 Glenn T.
 
SEABORG and Edwin M. McMillan discovered
 
PLUTONIUM and determined that the plutonium 239
 (Pu-239) isotope also was fissionable. European
 research was hampered during World War II; bombing
 and early miscalculations slowed German fission
 work under Werner 
HEISENBERG. In the United
 States, work was coordinated from 1942 under the
 
MANHATTAN PROJECT, directed toward the building
 of the 
ATOMIC BOMB; but after the war, under the
 
ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION (AEC), other
 applications of nuclear fission were explored. By
 the early 1950s electric power was being generated
 from nuclear energy in the United States, becoming
 commercially available a few years later.
 Meanwhile, nuclear technology spread to other
 countries, including Canada, the Soviet Union,
 Great Britain, France, and China. Despite the 1968
 
NUCLEAR NONPROLIFERATION TREATY, nuclear
 technology later spread to some other countries as
 well, probably including Israel and South Africa.


nuclear freeze movement, the movement to freeze
 nuclear armaments at current levels; it began at
 the Pugwash multinational scientific meeting of
 1981 and generated nuclear freeze movements in many
 countries during the 1980s. Support for the
 movement waned after the Soviet Union and the
 United States moved to reduce, rather than freeze,
 nuclear weapons.

nuclear fusion, process by which hydrogen nuclei
 merge, or fuse, producing helium and energy, the
 type of reaction that produces energy in the Sun
 and stars, as first outlined in 1939 by Hans
 
BETHE. On Earth the uncontrolled reaction leads
 to an explosion, as in the 
HYDROGEN BOMB; but if
 controlled, it can be a powerful energy source. By
 1942 Enrico 
FERMI and Edward 
TELLER had
 conceived of a bomb employing nuclear fusion; it
 was built by Teller 1949-52. Controlled nuclear
 fusion proved more elusive, even after attempts
 from the 1950s by various countries, including the
 superpowers, to share nuclear fusion information.
 
DEUTERIUM, the main fuel used in nuclear fusion,
 is readily available, as in sea water, and
 efficient nuclear fusion would hold the promise of
 cheap, almost unlimited energy. Into the late
 1980s, however, nuclear fission, produced under
 extremely high temperatures, was very far from
 fulfilling that promise, the energy put in
 outweighing the gain overall. But the promise is so
 great that when, in early 1989, B. Stanley Pons of
 the University of Utah and Martin Fleischmann from
 Britain's University of Southampton announced that
 they had achieved nuclear fusion at room
 temperatures-so-called cold fusion-it was
 front-page news for weeks, with controversy raging
 over whether they had, in fact, achieved nuclear
 fusion or some other type of reaction.

nuclear magnetic resonance imager, formal name of
 the 
NMR IMAGER.

Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, 1968 treaty signed
 by more than 100 nations, agreeing not to acquire
 or help in the acquisition of nuclear weapons.
 France and China, possessors of nuclear weapons,
 were not signatories, nor were several
 non-nuclear-power nations.

nuclear power, energy released from atoms through
 
NUCLEAR FISSION or 
NUCLEAR FUSION, especially
 controlled energy used for peaceful purposes.

nuclear reactor (atomic pile), structure in which
 
NUCLEAR FISSION reactions are induced and
 controlled to produce a flow of usable energy or to
 produce materials needed for nuclear weapons; the
 first was created in 1942 by Enrico 
FERMI'S

 MANHATTAN PROJECT research team in a University of
 Chicago squash court.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), U.S. agency
 that, with the Energy Research and Development
 Administration (ERDA), replaced the 
ATOMIC ENERGY

 COMMISSION (AEC) from 1975.

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963), a
 Soviet-American-British agreement banning
 atmospheric, underwater, and outer space testing of
 nuclear weapons but permitting underground testing
 to continue. The agreement was later signed by many
 other nations.

nuclear winter, theoretical result of atomic
 warfare, as particles aloft in the atmosphere
 exclude the Sun's warming rays, leading to
 worldwide cooling and widespread crop failures and
 extinctions. Sparked by Luis and Walter 
ALVAREZ's
 1980 theory of mass extinction following a
 meteorite crash some 65 million years ago, and the
 subsequent concern of scientists such as Carl
 
SAGAN, an interdisciplinary group in 1984
 published their grim forecast of a nuclear winter
 in a key paper titled "Long-Term Biological
 Consequences of Nuclear War."

nucleus, positively charged mass in an atom, placed
 at the center of 
ATOMIC STRUCTURE by Ernest
 
RUTHERFORD in 1911. In 1919 Rutherford first
 artificially bombarded the nucleus of an atom,
 splitting it; later experiments along these lines
 led to modern 
NUCLEAR FISSION. By the 1930s,
 scientists had found that the nucleus included the
 uncharged 
NEUTRON and the positively charge
 
PROTON, which by the 1950s were found to have
 been made up of other still smaller 
PARTICLES,
 notably 
QUARKS, held together by 
GLUONS.

Nujoma, Sam (1929- ), Namibian political leader, a
 co-founder and first president of the 
SOUTHWEST

 AFRICA PEOPLE'S ORGANIZATION OF NAMIBIA (SWAPO) in
 1959; from 1966 he led SWAPO guerrilla external
 forces in the long 
NAMIBIAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE,
 returning to Namibia in 1989.

Nuremberg Laws, Nazi anti-Jewish decrees,
 promulgated on September 15, 1935, and linked with
 the ideas of 
EUGENICS. They deprived German Jews
 of full citizenship, forbade marriage or
 intercourse between Jews and others, introduced a
 period of even more severe anti-Jewish persecution
 throughout Nazi Germany, and helped prepare Germans
 for the eventual murder of millions of Jews in Nazi
 
DEATH CAMPS.

Nuremberg Trials (November 1945-October 1946), the
 war crimes trials of prominent Nazis by the
 International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg,
 Germany, the first of many such trials after World
 War II, at Nuremberg, other German locations, the
 Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and other countries.
 Later trials at Nuremberg included the war crimes
 prosecutions of some of the Nazi 
DEATH CAMP
 doctors, a considerable number of other
 
CONCENTRATION CAMP personnel, and members of the
 SS special squads in the Soviet Union. Similar war
 crimes trials were held in Tokyo. The trials
 produced massive evidence of Nazi crimes, dating
 back to the seizure of power in Germany in 1933 and
 including the huge mass murders of the Nazi period.
 At the conclusion of the trials two of the
 defendants were sentenced to death, including
 Martin 
BORMANN (in absentia), Hans 
FRANK,
 Wilhelm 
FRICK, Hermann 
GOERING, Alfred 
JODL,
 Ernst 
KALTENBRUNNER, Wilhelm 
KEITEL, Joachim
 von 
RIBBENTROP, Alfred 
ROSENBERG, Fritz
 Sauckel, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, and Julius
 
STREICHER. All but Goering, who committed suicide
 in his cell, and Bormann, who was never captured,
 were executed. Seven other defendants were
 sentenced to imprisonment, and three were
 acquitted.

Nuts! comment by U.S. general Anthony C.
 
MCAULIFFE during the World War II Battle of
 
BASTOGNE, on receiving a German ultimatum to
 surrender.

Nyasaland, the former name of 
MALAWI (Republic of
 Malawi), a British protectorate and then part of
 
RHODESIA, which became an independent nation on
 July 6, 1964.

Nyerere, Julius Kambarage (1922- ), Tanzanian
 teacher, a moderate socialist and pan-African
 leader who was founding president of the Tanganyika
 African National Union (TANU) in 1954. He became
 prime mover in the drive for Tanganyikan national
 independence that culminated in full autonomy
 within the 
COMMONWEALTH in 1961, and in the
 establishment of the Tanganyikan republic in 1962.
 He was president of Tanganyika 1962-64, and then of
 the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, which became
 the new nation of Tanzania, 1964-85. He established
 a socialist-oriented one-party state, achieved
 major social welfare and educational advances, and
 became one of Africa's leading statesmen. In 1984
 his government successfully went to war against
 Uganda, helping depose the Idi 
AMIN dictatorship.
 He left the presidency in 1985, an elder statesman
 and the most influential of his country's leaders.


Oak Ridge, Tennessee site of the plant that from
 1943 produced fissionable 
URANIUM for early
 
ATOMIC BOMBS, notably the one exploded at
 
HIROSHIMA.

OAS, the French Algerian terrorist 
SECRET ARMY

 ORGANIZATION of the early 1960s.

OAS, the initials of the multinational
 
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES.

OAU, the initials of the multinational
 
ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY.

Obote, Apollo Milton (1924- ), Ugandan nationalist
 and socialist, who founded the Ugandan People's
 Congress in 1960, and became first prime minister
 of the Republic of Uganda in 1962, within the
 framework of a constitution that granted autonomy
 to Buganda and three other earlier kingdoms within
 Uganda. In 1966 he deposed the president and
 vice-president and abolished the constitution and
 the autonomy it provided, becoming president. In
 1969 he established a one-party socialist state,
 repressing all opposition parties. In 1971 he was
 himself overthrown in a military coup led by Idi
 
AMIN; he then went into Tanzanian exile. After
 Amin was toppled by the Tanzanian army in the
 
UGANDA-TANZANIA WAR of 1979, Obote's party won
 majority support, and he became president again. He
 then instituted a reign of terror of his own, first
 against political opponents and then during the
 civil war that followed, in which an estimated
 200,000 people died. In 1985 he was again deposed,
 and went into exile.

Obregon, Alvaro (1880-1928), Mexican farmer who
 raised a company of soldiers to fight with
 Francisco 
MADERO in the 
MEXICAN REVOLUTION and
 became general of Venustiano 
CARRANZA's forces.
 His forces ultimately defeated the forces of
 Francisco 
VILLA in a series of battles in 1915,
 including the decisive Battle of 
CELAYA. He led a
 revolt against the Carranza government in 1920,
 became president of Mexico 1920-24, and was
 assassinated in 1928.

Ochs, Adolph Simon (1858-1935), U.S. publisher who
 purchased the New York Times in 1896, introduced
 the slogan "All the News That's Fit to Print,"
 added such features as the Times book review, and
 developed it into one of the most respected
 newspapers in the United States.

O'Connor, Sandra Day (1930- ), U.S. lawyer,
 prosecutor, Arizona Republican state legislator
 (1969-74), judge (1975-79), and court of appeals
 judge (1979-81). In 1981 she became an associate
 justice of the Supreme Court, the first woman to
 hold that position.

October Manifesto, the October 17, 1905, document
 in which Czar 
NICHOLAS II, seeking to ease the
 pressure on his regime caused by the 
RUSSIAN

 REVOLUTION of 1905, inaugurated a short-lived
 period of limited constitutional government in
 Russia.

October Revolution, the second Russian revolution
 of 1917, which overthrew Alexander 
KERENSKY's
 
PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT, brought the 
BOLSHEVIKS
 to power, and began the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR of
 1917-22. On November 6, 1917, 
RED GUARD and
 military units organized by the 
PETROGRAD SOVIET,
 by then under Bolshevik control and directed by
 Bolshevik leader Leon 
TROTSKY, headquartered in
 the 
SMOLNY INSTITUTE, began to forcibly occupy
 government centers in Petrograd. On the night of
 November 7, they completed their occupation,
 storming and taking the 
WINTER PALACE,
 headquarters of the Provisional Government.
 Throughout the country, Soviet armed forces
 undertook similar action, meeting heavy armed
 resistance only in the Ukraine and in Moscow. In
 the Ukraine that resistance continued; the more
 general civil war began in May 1918. Between
 October and May, the Bolsheviks took Russia out of
 World War I by the Treaty of 
BREST-LITOVSK (March
 3, 1918); established a new secret police, the
 
CHEKA, and began to suppress all dissent; and
 organized the Red Army. They also began to carry
 out such programmatic promises as the
 nationalization of private property, including
 land, industry, and the financial system; legal
 equality for women; separation of church and state
 and, in practice, the attempted destruction of
 religious organizations; and development of a new
 judicial system.

October War (October 6-24, 1973), an alternate name
 for the 
YOM KIPPUR WAR, also known as the 
FOURTH

 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR.

Odessa, liberation of (April 10, 1944), freeing of
 the Russian city by Soviet forces driving southwest
 toward Rumania, late in World War II.

Odinga, Ajuma Oginga (1911- ), Kenyan Luo tribal
 leader and teacher, who became an associate of Jomo
 
KENYATTA in the Kenyan national movement in 1948,
 a vice-president of the Kenya African National
 Union (KANU) in 1960, and vice- president of Kenya
 1964-66. A socialist, he split with Kenyatta and
 the KANU in 1966, forming the Kenya People's Union.
 He was then forced to resign his vice-presidency
 and was succeeded by Daniel Arap 
MOI, who later
 became president of Kenya. In 1969, after the
 assassination of Thomas 
MBOYA, Odinga's party was
 banned; he was arrested, jailed until 1971, and
 then not allowed to run for public office. He was
 again arrested after the unsuccessful air force
 coup of 1982, as was his son, Raila Odinga.

Office of Price Administration (OPA), a U.S.
 federal agency, created in April 1941, that
 controlled prices and rents and administered
 rationing programs during World War II.

Office of Strategic Services (OSS), U.S. World War
 II special operations intelligence organization,
 headed by Colonel William J. 
DONOVAN; it was
 involved in a considerable variety of espionage,
 sabotage, and other covert operations. The
 organization was regarded by many military and
 intelligence professionals of the period as a group
 of free-wheeling, rather unstable amateurs,
 although it was able to claim credit for many
 successful operations. The OSS was the forerunner
 of the 
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA).

officers' plot, failed bombing attempt to
 assassinate 
HITLER, carried out on July 20, 1944,
 by Col. Klaus von 
STAUFFENBERG on behalf of a
 group of German army officers. An armed forces
 purge and many executions followed; one of the
 casualties was General Erwin 
ROMMEL, who had been
 implicated and committed suicide.

OGPU, a later name and form of the Soviet secret
 police organization that began in 1917 as the
 
CHEKA.

Ohio State Penitentiary fire (April 21, 1930), fire
 that broke out at the terribly overcrowded state
 prison at Columbus, Ohio. Fearing escapes, prison
 guards refused to open the cell doors, trapping
 prisoners in the burning prison; 320 died in their
 cells.

oil embargo (October 1973-March 1974), the cutoff
 of all oil supplies to the industrialized nations
 of the world, imposed by the 
ORGANIZATION OF

 PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC), in response
 to the Israeli victory in the 
ARAB-ISRAELI WAR of
 1973. The embargo was lifted after the
 disengagement of the combatants.

Ojukwu, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu (1933- ), Nigerian
 officer, an Ibo who became military governor of the
 eastern region of the country in 1966, and resisted
 central government control during and after the Ibo
 massacres of 1966-67. On May 30, 1967, the eastern
 region seceded, becoming the Republic of Biafra;
 Ojukwu was its president, leading his new state
 throughout the 
NIGERIA-BIAFRA CIVIL WAR. After
 the lost war he went into exile, returning to
 Nigerian political life in the early 1980s.

Okies, the destitute migrant refugees from the
 
DUST BOWL of Oklahoma and several neighboring
 states during the 1930s, and the subject of John
 Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath. Many settled in
 California and in such northern cities as Detroit,
 finding war work during the 1940s and becoming
 integrated into their new communities.

Okinawa, Battle of (April-June 1945), capture of
 this Pacific island by U.S. forces late in World
 War II. Unopposed amphibious landings began on
 April 1; heavy fighting between American forces and
 Japanese defenders, numbering 130,000-140,000 men,
 began a few days later as the main attacking force
 moved against strongly defended mountain positions.
 On April 7, strong Japanese aerial attacks,
 including hundreds of 
KAMIKAZE suicide attacks,
 did some damage to the invasion fleet but failed to
 put any of its major fighting vessels out of
 action. On the same day the remaining Japanese
 superbattleship, the Yamoto, attacked the invasion
 fleet, but without air cover it was easily sunk.
 Kamikaze attacks continued through mid-April,
 resulting in some damage to the invasion fleet and
 the loss of over 3,000 more Japanese planes and
 pilots. A long land battle on the island ended on
 June 22, when Japanese resistance ended. An
 estimated 125,000-130,000 Japanese died defending
 the island, most of the defenders electing to fight
 to the death, although there were more than 7,000
 Japanese prisoners. Of 50,000 American casualties,
 there were over 12,000 dead.

Olympic boycott, boycott of the 1980 Moscow summer
 Olympics, initiated by President Jimmy 
CARTER, in
 response to the 1979 Soviet invasion of
 
AFGHANISTAN. The boycott was ultimately joined by
 over 50 other countries.

Olympic games, a modern revival of the ancient
 Greek games, as a quadrennial set of international
 summer and winter games and a celebration of
 essential human unity. The Athens Olympiad of 1896
 began the modern games; aside from major breaks
 during World Wars I and II, they have been held
 regularly ever since, although sometimes marred and
 intruded upon by current conflicts. Nazi racism
 directed against Black American athlete Jesse Owens
 marred the 1936 Berlin games, as did the Arab
 terrorist mass murder of Israeli athletes at the
 
MUNICH GAMES of 1972. Two Americans caused a
 furor by responding with 
BLACK POWER salutes (a
 clenched fist raised in the air) during their
 victory celebrations at Mexico City, in 1968, while
 continuing disputes in southern Africa caused
 withdrawal threats in 1972 and many withdrawals in
 1976. The Soviet invasion of 
AFGHANISTAN
 generated U.S. and other Western withdrawals from
 the 1980 Moscow games; the Soviets retaliated by
 boycotting the 1984 Los Angeles games. The 1988
 Seoul games seemed for a time threatened by
 possible mass demonstrations against an unpopular
 Korean government and possible terrorist attacks,
 but went off without incident. While sometimes
 seriously threatened, the Olympic games and their
 ideal have endured.

Oman (Sultanate of Oman), until 1951 a British
 protectorate. Though an independent state since
 December 20, 1951, and with British bases no longer
 in operation after 1977, Oman remains strongly
 influenced in external affairs by Great Britain.

one third of a nation, statement by U. S. president
 Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT, in his second
 Inaugural Address, January 20, 1937; from "I see
 one third of a nation ill-housed, ill-clad,
 ill-nourished."

Onishi, Takijiro (1891-1945), Japanese naval
 officer who, as air force commander in the
 Philippines during the American invasion of 1944,
 originated the 
KAMIKAZE tactics used there and
 even more fully during the Battle of 
OKINAWA. He
 committed suicide after the Japanese surrender in
 1945.

only thing we have to fear is fear itself, The,
 statement by U. S. president Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT in his first Inaugural Address, March
 4, 1933.

OPA, the initials of the 
OFFICE OF PRICE

 ADMINISTRATION, by which this most ubiquitous of
 all the U.S. wartime federal agencies was best
 known.

OPEC, the initials of the multinational
 
ORGANIZATION OF THE PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES


Open Door Policy, the stated policy of the United
 States toward China from 1899, calling for the
 protection of China from foreign dismemberment and
 for equal trading rights for all countries in
 China; it became United States policy in the early
 years of the century.

open-heart surgery, direct surgery on the
 heart-unbeating, drained of blood, and open to the
 surgeon's view-while the patient's circulatory
 system is kept functioning by a heart-lung machine.
 Until the mid-20th century heart surgery was rare,
 minor, and tentative, for the heart kept beating
 and the surgeon had to work "blind" on tissue
 obscured by blood. Only if the body was chilled to
 reduce its need for oxygen could the heart be open
 to the surgeon's view and then for only about 10
 minutes. Even so, during World War II surgeons were
 forced to operate on the wounded; one physician,
 Dwight Emary Harken, reportedly removed 134
 "missiles" from the heart area, 13 from the heart
 itself, without losing a patient. In 1944 Albert
 
BLALOCK introduced surgery to repair heart
 defects in 
BLUE BABIES. But only with the
 development of practical heart-lung
 machines-essentially external 
ARTIFICIAL

 HEARTS-were doctors able to do complex, intricate,
 time-consuming work on the heart. In 1953, John
 Gibbon, Jr., first used a heart-lung machine to
 keep his patient, Cecelia Bavolek, alive during
 heart surgery. The techniques of open-heart surgery
 led to 
HEART TRANSPLANTS, the first of which was
 done by Christiaan 
BARNARD in 1967, and to other
 innovations, such as the 
CORONARY BYPASS, first
 done by U.S. surgeon Rene Favalaro, also in 1967.
 Much open-heart surgery focused on less drastic
 operations, such as repair or replacement of
 valves.

opening to China, the February 1972 visit of U.S.
 president Richard M. 
NIXON to the 
PEOPLE'S

 REPUBLIC OF CHINA, which ended the decades of
 estrangement that had started with American support
 of 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK during the latter stages of
 the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR and then became bitter
 enmity during the 
KOREAN WAR.

Oppau explosion (September 21, 1921), explosion of
 an industrial gas generator at Oppau, Germany,
 destroying a chemical plant and much of the city;
 more than 1,000 people died.

Oppenheimer, Julius Robert (1904-67), U.S.
 physicist and teacher, who played a major role in
 the development of the 
ATOMIC BOMB as part of the
 
MANHATTAN PROJECT, from 1943 organizing and
 directing the 
LOS ALAMOS, New Mexico, laboratory
 in which the bomb itself was developed. In the late
 1930s, he had done key early work relating to
 
PULSARS and 
BLACK HOLES. During the postwar
 period, he was greatly concerned with the survival
 of humanity because of the bomb he had helped
 create; serving as adviser to the 
ATOMIC ENERGY

 COMMISSION and the U.S. Mission to the United
 Nations, Oppenheimer supported international
 control of atomic energy and opposed the building
 of the 
HYDROGEN BOMB. He became director of the
 Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton in 1947.
 In 1953, during the witchhunts of the 
MCCARTHY
 period, he was accused of having Communist friends
 and of possible disloyalty and was denied further
 security clearance. He was later officially
 rehabilitated, receiving the Fermi Award in 1967.


oral contraceptive, alternate name for 
BIRTH

 CONTROL PILL.

Oran sinkings (July 4, 1940), a World War II
 British attack on French warships anchored in the
 harbor at Oran, Algeria, after the French refused
 to join the British, intern themselves, or sink
 their ships in the harbor. Three French battleships
 were sunk, the 
VICHY government broke relations
 with Great Britain, and a good deal of animosity
 developed between the British and the French, which
 lasted throughout the war and into the postwar
 period.

organ transplant, replacement of a diseased human
 organ with a healthy one from a donor;
 
TRANSPLANTS of kidneys and other organs were
 attempted from the 1900s but with little success
 until the 1950s. The first successful 
KIDNEY

 TRANSPLANT was done in 1954 and the first 
HEART

 TRANSPLANT in 1967.

Organization of African Unity (OAU), a
 multinational African forum established in 1963;
 its 50 members include almost all African nations,
 with some temporary withdrawals and returns as
 disputes develop. An exception is South Africa,
 which is the object of much of the anticolonial
 focus of the organization, along with opposition to
 some superpower activities in Africa. During the
 1980s, considerable attention also has been paid to
 the continent-wide problems of mounting debt and
 large, often starving refugee populations.

Organization of American States (OAS), a
 multinational inter-American organization
 established in 1948; its 32 members include almost
 all of the nations of Latin America and the United
 States. Cuba, although a member nation, has been
 barred from participation since 1962, although many
 sanctions against Cuba were removed in 1975, and
 the late 1980s saw much pressure to reestablish
 full Cuban participation. The OAS is active in the
 assertion of human rights throughout Latin America,
 in attempts to settle disputes between and within
 its member nations, and in opposition to moves
 against its members, as in its support of Argentina
 during the 
FALKLANDS WAR. It is increasingly
 involved in attempts to solve the great problems
 caused by the foreign debt crisis faced throughout
 Latin America.

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
 (OPEC), a multinational oil-producing cartel,
 composed of Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia,
 Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi
 Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. It was
 established in 1960, and has since attempted to
 control world oil prices, with varying success.
 During the mid-1970s, OPEC was able to force major
 oil price increases, in one 2-month period,
 October-December 1973, increasing prices 373%. That
 winter, OPEC sucessfully imposed an 
OIL EMBARGO
 on the industrialized nations of the world. But
 with oversupply and a world economic slowdown from
 the late 1970s, OPEC became much less able to
 control world oil prices, although they remained
 far higher than pre-1973 prices.

Organization, The, an alternative name for the U.S.
 
MAFIA.

Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele (1860-1952), Italian
 political leader, a member of parliament from 1897,
 at cabinet level during the early years of the
 century, and premier of Italy 1917-19. He led the
 Italian delegation at the 
PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE,
 but was disappointed by the terms of the Treaty of
 
VERSAILLES. He subsequently resigned as premier,
 but became leader of Italy's Chamber of Deputies.
 He supported Benito 
MUSSOLINI'S rise to power,
 but broke with him after the Fascist murder of
 Giacomo 
MATTEOTI in 1924; in 1925 he retired from
 public life in protest against the fascist
 government. He returned to public life after the
 fall of fascism, and was a senator from 1948-52.

Ortega Saavedra, Daniel (1945- ), Nicaraguan
 Marxian socialist and 
SANDINISTA leader, a
 guerrilla fighter from 1963 and imprisoned 1967-74;
 he was one of the five-member junta that ruled the
 country following the flight of dictator Anastasio
 
SOMOZA in July 1979. Ortega became leader of the
 farther-left three-member junta that ruled from
 March 1981, and president of Nicaragua in January
 1985. He was defeated in the free elections of
 February 1990.

Orwell, George (Eric Arthur Blair; 1903-50),
 British writer who focused on political matters in
 his essays and fiction. Some of his best-known
 works are the novel 1984 (1949), which powerfully
 attacked authoritarianism masquerading as a kind of
 socialism, Animal Farm (1946), Homage to Catalonia
 (1938), and The Road to Wigan Pier (1937).

OSO (
Orbiting 
Solar 
Observatory), series of
 U.S. research and observation 
SATELLITES
 recording solar data and transmitting it on
 command, the first launched on March 7, 1962.

OSS, the initials of the 
OFFICE OF STRATEGIC

 SERVICES, the U.S. World War II predecessor of the
 
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA).

Oswald, Lee Harvey (1939-63), assassin of President
 John F. 
KENNEDY in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,
 1963. Oswald was murdered by Jack 
RUBY in the
 Dallas city jail, in full view of a huge worldwide
 televison audience, 2 days later, November 24,
 1963.

Oswicim, alternate name for the
 
AUSCHWITZ-BIRKENAU German concentration camp.

Ottoman Empire, an alternate name for the Turkish
 Empire, the empire of the Ottoman Turks who ruled
 much of Europe and the Near East at the beginning
 of the 20th century. Turkish control over the
 empire deteriorated throughout the 19th century and
 the early years of the 20th century; the empire
 became widely known as the 
SICK MAN OF EUROPE.
 World War I, in which the Turks became German
 allies in a losing war, brought the coup de grace.
 The empire was dismantled, its surviving central
 portion becoming the Turkish Republic.

Ouchy, Treaty of (1912), agreement ending the
 
ITALO-TURKISH WAR.

overkill, excess of nuclear weapons over what would
 be needed to destroy or defeat an enemy at war, a
 term that came into use after World War II in
 relation to the superpower arms race.

Overlord, Operation, code name for the 
ALLIES'
 June 1944 
NORMANDY invasion plan in World War II.


Oxford Pledge,  the pacifist resolution of
 Britain's Oxford Union in February 1933, that "this
 House will not fight for King and Country,"
 reflecting continuing widespread revulsion against
 what were then seen as the needless deaths of
 millions in World War I, and strong support,
 especially among the young, for the 
LEAGUE OF

 NATIONS and the cause of disarmament. The pledge
 was very soon ignored in practice by the same young
 people who had made it; as fascism came, some of
 them went to Spain to fight on the Loyalist side,
 and the vast majority of them fought without
 reservation in World War II.

ozone layer (ozonosphere), layer of air about
 50,000-120,000 feet high in the Earth's atmosphere;
 it is heavy with ozone, a form of oxygen created by
 electricity or, in this case, 
ULTRAVIOLET

 RADIATION from the Sun. The ozone layer protects
 humans from the most harmful effects of ultraviolet
 radiation, but from at least 1974 it was clear that
 certain chemicals can deplete the layer by
 converting ozone back into normal oxygen; a British
 team in 1985 even detected a hole in the ozone
 layer over Antarctica. In addition to gases from
 volcanic eruptions, oustanding culprits were
 identified as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), also
 called chlorofluoromethanes (CFMs) or Freons,
 commonly used as spray propellants or refrigerants.
 The United States banned CFCs in aerosol sprays in
 1978, and in 1988 was the first to ratify an
 international treaty banning them, but few other
 actions were taken there or elsewhere in the
 intervening years.

pacemaker, small electrical device implanted in a
 patient's chest to stimulate regular pumping action
 in the heart. Bulky external electrical devices had
 been used for that purpose from the 1930s, but the
 development of miniature batteries and
 
TRANSISTORS allowed the development of small
 implants in the United States by 1952, the first
 implant being made in 1958.

Pact of Paris, an alternate name for the
 
KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT of 1928, a multinational
 attempt to outlaw war.

Paderewski, Ignacy Jan (1860-1941), eminent pianist
 and Polish nationalist, who played a large role in
 winning world support for the cause of Polish
 independence; he became first premier and foreign
 minister of the new Polish Republic in 1919. He
 left the government in 1920, returning to his
 musical career. During the early years of World War
 II, he was a leading member of the Polish
 government in exile.

Pahlevi, Muhammed Reza Shah (1919-80), the last
 shah of Iran (1941-79), who became shah after the
 forced abdication of his father, Reza Shah
 
PAHLEVI, in 1941. He became little more than a
 figurehead ruler in 1951, with the accession to the
 premiership of National Front leader Mohammed
 
MOSSADEQ, and the nationalization of the Iranian
 oil industry. He fled the country on August 16,
 1953, after supporting an unsuccessful coup against
 the Mossadeq government, sponsored by U.S. and
 British intelligence organizations, but returned as
 ruler of Iran 3 days later, when an Iranian army
 revolt toppled that government. He then ruled Iran,
 continuing and greatly expanding the westernization
 program begun by his father, but as an American
 ally, deeply involved in the 
COLD WAR. He
 survived the anti-government rioting of June 1963,
 subsequently exiling its leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah
 
KHOMEINI; ultimately, in January 1979, his
 government fell to a coalition of Khomeini's
 Islamic fundamentalist followers, democratic groups
 opposed to his increasingly savage and corrupt
 regime, and left-wing socialist groups. Pahlevi
 then fled into Egptian exile.

Pahlevi, Reza Shah (Reza Khan; 1878-1944), Iranian
 general in command of the Cossack Brigade, who
 seized power from the government of Ahmad Shah in
 February 1921, then built a powerful military force
 and took full control of the country. He became
 premier in 1923, and shah, head of the new house of
 Pahlevi, in 1925. For the next 16 years he ruled
 Iran, increasingly as an absolute monarch,
 attempting to steer an independent course while
 using greatly increasing oil revenues to develop
 Iran into a modern nation. In the process, he
 sharply attacked the power of the Islamic clergy; a
 major symbolic move was the abolishing of the veil
 in 1936. He refused to enter World War II on the
 side of the Allies, and Iran was invaded by British
 and Soviet troops after the German invasion of the
 Soviet Union in 1941; he was then forced to
 abdicate, going into exile after passing the crown
 to his son, Mohammed Reza Shah 
PAHLEVI.

Pakistan (Islamic Republic of Pakistan), until 1947
 part of British India, which also dominated many
 minor, nominally independent states on the
 subcontinent. With independence came the disastrous
 partition of India (
INDIA, PARTITION OF),
 emergence of the new nations of Pakistan and
 
INDIA, and continuing disputes over some of the
 other states on the subcontinent, including
 Kashmir. Pakistan, led by Mohammed Ali 
JINNAH,
 became a Moslem state, with two main divisions,
 East and West Pakistan. East Pakistan won its own
 independence in 1971, as 
BANGLADESH, in the 1971
 
BANGLADESH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, which was
 accompanied by the 
INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR OF 1971.
 After the 1988 death of dictator Mohammed 
ZIA

 UL-HAQ, Pakistan embarked on a new, democratic
 course under the leadership of Benazir 
BHUTTO.

Pakistan People's Party, the socialist and Islamic
 party founded in Pakistan in 1967 by Zulfikar Ali
 
BHUTTO. It took power on December 20, 1971, when
 Bhutto became chief martial law administrator and
 then prime minister after the lost 
INDIA-PAKISTAN

 WAR OF 1971. The party won the March 1977
 elections, but was banned following the July army
 coup that brought general Mohammad 
ZIA UL-HAQ to
 power. Bhutto was executed in 1979, but his
 daughter, Benazir 
BHUTTO, who had been held under
 house arrest for some years and had then gone
 abroad, returned to lead the party in opposition to
 the Zia Ul-Haq dictatorship in 1986. In 1988 she
 led it to power in a democratic Pakistan, after the
 death of Zia in an airplane crash.

Palestine, partition of (1948), partition was
 recommended by the British Peel Commission in 1937,
 in response to the the 
PALESTINIAN GENERAL STRIKE

 AND REVOLT of 1936. In 1947 the 
UNITED NATIONS
 recommended partition of Palestine into Arab and
 Jewish states, setting October l, 1948, as the date
 of British withdrawal. As civil war threatened in
 Palestine, Britain decided to withdraw earlier,
 setting May 14, 1948, as the date. Israel declared
 itself an independent nation, effective on that
 date; civil war and the 
ISRAELI WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE (FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR) immediately
 followed, ending with de facto partition of the
 country, although without peace treaties.

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO),
 Palestinian Arab political organization founded in
 1964 as a semigovernmental body aiming ultimately
 to achieve a Palestinian Arab state, primarily by
 political means and through development of a
 regular Palestinian army. In 1967, after Arab
 defeat in the 
THIRD ARAB-ISRAELI WAR (SINAI-SUEZ

 WAR), the PLO began to focus more on guerrilla
 warfare. In 1969 Yasir 
ARAFAT was named PLO
 chairman, and his organization, 
FATAH, became the
 most important group in the PLO. The PLO suffered a
 major setback with its 1970-71 defeat by and
 expulsion from Jordan. It then headquartered in
 Lebanon and became engaged in the long 
LEBANESE

 CIVIL WAR, meanwhile continuing its guerrilla war
 against Israel. The 1982 Israeli invasion of
 Lebanon severely damaged PLO fighting forces, as
 did internal dissension. From the mid-1970s, the
 PLO took what was perceived by its hard-line
 elements and by some Arab states as too moderate a
 position vis-a-vis Israel; the resulting
 dissidence, including some secessions, weakened the
 PLO considerably, contributing to its eventual
 expulsion from Lebanon in 1983. Although a much
 weakened fighting force, the PLO continued to be
 recognized as the main Palestinian Arab political
 organization, and Yasir Arafat as the main
 spokesperson of the Palestinian national movement.
 In the late 1980s, especially as the 
INTIFADA
 developed on the 
WEST BANK, the PLO achieved
 worldwide recognition as the leading force in what
 was seen as a Palestinian government-in-exile, and
 Arafat was recognized as the leader of the
 Palestinian independence movement.

Palestinian general strike and revolt (1936-39), a
 6-month general strike that grew into a 3-year
 guerrilla war throughout Palestine, in opposition
 to growing Jewish settlement and land purchase and
 to continuing British occupation of the country. In
 response, the British Peel Commission in 1937
 recommended the partition of Palestine. The White
 Paper of 1939 limited Jewish immigration and land
 purchase, while restating the goal of ultimate
 partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states.


Palmach, an Israeli front-line fighting force
 formed in 1941; some Palmach commando units fought
 with the British in the Middle East during World
 War II. From 1945 through the end of the 
ISRAELI

 WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR) the
 Palmach was an elite fighting force within the
 
HAGANAH; after independence it was disbanded, its
 members either absorbed into the Israeli armed
 forces or going into civilian life.

Palme, Olaf (1927-86), Swedish Social Democratic
 party leader, in parliament from 1958 and premier
 1969-76 and 1982-86, who was active on
 international disarmament and development matters.
 He was assassinated in Stockholm, on February 28,
 1986.

Palmer, Alexander Mitchell (1872-1936), U.S.
 lawyer, Pennsylvania Democratic congressman
 (1909-15), and United States attorney general
 (1919-21) who was the key mover in the development
 of the 
RED SCARE of 1919-20, which featured the
 
PALMER RAIDS, and resulted in the jailing without
 adequate legal process of thousands and the
 deportation of hundreds of radical and aliens, the
 most prominent of whom were Emma 
GOLDMAN and
 Alexander 
BERKMAN.

Palmer Raids, the mass arrests of more than 4,000
 alleged subversives throughout the United States,
 initiated by U.S. attorney general A. Mitchell
 
PALMER on January 2, 1920. They were arrested as
 part of the 
RED SCARE of 1919-20, a period of
 antialien, antiradical hysteria following World War
 I and the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION. All but a few of
 those arrested in the Palmer Raids were ultimately
 acquitted or not even brought to trial, although
 hundreds of those arrested earlier, including Emma
 
GOLDMAN and Alexander 
BERKMAN, were deported.


Pan-African movement, an attempt to build an
 African anticolonial movement, begun in 1900 with
 the first Pan-African Congress, organized by W. E.
 B. 
DU BOIS and other U.S. and West Indian Black
 leaders in London. Five such Pan-African Congresses
 were held, in 1900, 1919, 1921, 1923, and 1927. As
 World War II was ending, a far stronger African
 anticolonial movement emerged and with it formation
 of the Pan African Federation in 1944 and the
 watershed Sixth Pan-African Congress of 1945, held
 in Manchester and attended by many future African
 national leaders, including Jomo 
KENYATTA and
 Kwame 
NKRUMAH. Independence came to many African
 nations during the early postwar period; the next
 Pan-African meeting was the 1958 Accra, Ghana,
 meeting of independent African states, which
 developed in 1963 into the continent-wide
 
ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY.

Panama (Republic of Panama), until 1903 part of
 Colombia, becoming an independent nation on
 November 3, 1903, after a brief revolution
 sponsored by the United States to clear the way for
 the building of the 
PANAMA CANAL. The new nation
 granted the United States long-term rights to the
 
PANAMA CANAL ZONE and became a de facto U.S.
 protectorate. Panama and the United States
 renegotiated the Canal Zone treaties in 1977,
 easing considerable strain between the two
 countries. In the late 1980s, a continuing
 U.S.-Panama dispute over the alleged drug-related
 activities of Panamanian strongman Manuel 
NORIEGA
 developed. It escalated into a substantial
 confrontation on the issue of Panama's nullified
 presidential election of May 1989.

Panama Canal, the U.S.-built canal across the
 Isthmus of Panama, linking the Atlantic and Pacific
 oceans; it became a central facility for the
 world's ocean shipping from the day the first ship
 passed through, August 3, 1914. It succeeded the
 failed French-led attempt to build such a canal,
 begun under Suez Canal builder Ferdinand de Lesseps
 in 1881. The canal traverses the 10-mile-wide
 
CANAL ZONE, granted to the United States by
 Panama by treaty in 1904, after president Theodore
 
ROOSEVELT had encouraged a Panamanian revolution
 against Colombia to secure a compliant treaty
 partner. Building began in 1904, took 10 years, and
 was completed by engineer George W. 
GOETHALS. The
 virtual U.S. sovereignty over the Canal Zone was
 disputed by many Panamanians from the beginning,
 leading ultimately to armed clashes in 1964 and
 renegotiation of the basic agreement by the treaty
 of 1979.

Panama, invasion of, U.S. forces in divisional
 strength invaded Panama on December 20, 1989,
 joining forces already stationed in that country;
 total U.S. forces involved ultimately numbered
 24,000-25,000 troops. The small Panamanian army,
 the Self Defense Force, was quickly overwhelmed, in
 less than 4 four days of fighting. Panamanian
 military casualties included an estimated 400-500
 dead, including members of the paramilitary Dignity
 Battalions. Several hundred Panamanian civilian
 noncombatants were also killed, an estimated 2,000
 more were injured, and an estimated 13,000-14,000
 were left homeless. U.S. military casualties
 included 24 dead and 323 wounded; there were also 3
 U.S. civilian deaths. Panamanian leader Manuel
 
NORIEGA, the target of the attack, took refuge in
 the Vatican Panama City embassy on December 24. He
 surrendered to U.S. forces on January 3, and was
 taken to the United States, to stand trial on
 longstanding drug charges. On December 20, the U.S.
 installed a new Panamanian government, headed by
 president Guillermo Endara. U.S. forces continued
 to occupy Panama during the early months of 1990.


Pan-Arab movement, a movement that, in its
 20th-century form, developed as the rebellion of
 the Arab national movement against Turkish rule led
 by 
HUSEIN IBN ALI and his sons, in alliance with
 the British, during World War I. As a group of
 often-competing Arab states developed, Arab unity
 continued as an ideal, coming sharply into focus in
 the 1930s and 1940s on the Palestine issue; in
 1945, with the formation of the 
ARAB LEAGUE; and
 in 1948, with the 
FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR, on
 formation of the state of Israel. During the
 postwar period the pan-Arab and socialist 
BA'ATH

 PARTY, organized in 1947, also gained strengh
 throughout the Arab world, coming to power in Syria
 in 1963 and in Iraq in 1968; Egypt's Gamal Abdel
 
NASSER also expressed Pan-Arab goals. The long
 Arab-Israeli conflict and common oil interests have
 preserved considerable pan-Arab unity during the
 1970s and 1980s, but conflicting national interests
 and the advent of Islamic fundamentalism have
 created major new divisive problems in the Arab
 world.

Panay Incident (December 12, 1937), the Japanese
 bombing of several U.S. and British gunboats and
 the sinking of the U.S.S. Panay in the Yangtse
 River, near Nanking; the action was part of the
 run-up to World War II. The sinking was a cause
 celebre in the United States, which was not
 satisfied by Japanese apologies.

Pandit, Vijaya Lakshmi (1900- ), Indian nationalist
 leader, daughter of Motilal 
NEHRU and sister of
 Jawaharlal 
NEHRU. An independence movement
 activist, she was imprisoned on several occasions
 by the British in the 1920s, served in the Uttar
 Pradesh legislature in the 1930s, and after
 independence became a key Indian diplomat. She was
 India's ambassador to the Soviet Union 1947-49, to
 the United States 1949-51, and to Great Britain
 1954-61. In 1953-54, she was the first woman
 president of the 
UNITED NATIONS General Assembly.
 She was active in Indian political life from 1962
 to 1968, as a provincial governor and then as a
 member of parliament.

Pangaea, single supercontinent believed to have
 existed some 200 million years ago, according to
 Alfred 
WEGENER's 
CONTINENTAL DRIFT theory
 (1912).

Panic of 1907, a U.S. financial crash that for a
 time threatened to send the United States into a
 major depression; it was averted by the concerted
 private action of a group of financiers led by J.
 Pierpont 
MORGAN. The next such U.S. panic
 resulted in the 
CRASH of 1929, in which such
 private efforts were mounted but failed.

Pankhurst, Emmeline (1858-1928), British women's
 rights leader and chief organizer of the successful
 battle for 
WOMAN SUFFRAGE in Britain. From 1903,
 when she organized the Women's Social and Political
 Union, to 1912, she and her daughters, Christabel
 Pankhurst (1880-1958) and Sylvia Pankhurst
 (1882-1960), led a highly visible movement. In that
 period, they and their followers were very often
 arrested and imprisoned by an intransigent British
 government, while conducting peaceful
 demonstrations, and they resorted to the
 attention-getting tactic of the hunger strike while
 in prison. From July 1912, her movement turned
 toward violence, including some incidents of arson.
 At the beginning of World War I, she and her
 organization ended their campaign, and thereafter
 fully supported the British war effort in return
 for a promise of woman suffrage after the war.

Panmunjom negotiations, the 2-year-long truce
 negotations that ultimately led to the 
KOREAN WAR
 armistice of July 27, 1953. The talks were held at
 the village of Panmunjom, in the no-man's-land
 between the opposing armies.

Panzers, 
TANK divisions of the German army, used
 to great effect in World War II.

Papadopoulos, George (1919- ), Greek officer who
 took power in a 1967 military coup, and then ruled
 Greece by decree until he was toppled by another
 military coup in 1973. He was sentenced to death by
 the democratic government that came to power in
 1974, but the sentence was not carried out.

Papandreou, Georgios (1886-1968), Greek socialist
 and political leader, in parliament 1923-35, and
 founder of the Democratic Socialist party in 1935;
 he was exiled by the 
METAXAS dictatorship 1936-40
 and imprisoned by 
AXIS occupation forces until
 his escape in 1944. He headed the Greek
 government-in-exile, was three-time Greek premier
 between 1945 and 1965, held other cabinet-level
 posts, and when not in power was the head of the
 opposition. He was arrested by the 
PAPADOPOULOS
 government after the 1967 military coup, dying a
 year later. Andreas George 
PAPANDREOU was his
 son.

Papandreou, Andreas George (1919- ), Greek
 socialist, economist, and political leader, the son
 of Georgios 
PAPANDREOU. He lived in the United
 States 1939-63, in that period becoming a U.S.
 citizen, serving in the navy during World War II,
 and teaching in a university. In 1963, he returned
 to Greece to serve in his father's cabinet, went
 into parliament, and was arrested and imprisoned by
 the 
PAPADOPOULOS government after the 1967
 military coup. In exile from 1967 to 1974, he
 returned to Greek politics and became premier
 1981-89, pursuing a socialist course domestically
 and a nonaligned course in international affairs.


Papen, Franz von (1879-1969), German military
 officer and diplomat, who was chancellor June
 1-December 2, 1932. In January 1933, he was
 instrumental in bringing 
HITLER to power in
 Germany; until June 1934 he was Hitler's
 vice-chancellor and thereafter a Nazi diplomat. He
 was acquitted of war crimes at the 
NUREMBERG

 TRIALS but later spent some time in jail for
 having been a major Nazi figure.

Pap smear, a simple test for cervical 
CANCER
 involving microscopic analysis of cells taken from
 a woman's vagina; developed by Greek-American cell
 biologist George Papanicolaou in 1933 from his
 earlier work, and later used as a routine screening
 procedure.

Papua New Guinea, until 1975 controlled by
 Australia; part of it had been the longtime British
 New Guinea colony, and its northeastern portion,
 formerly a German colony, had been acquired after
 World War I as a 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS mandate
 territory. It became an independent nation on
 September 16, 1975.

Paris, liberation of (August 25, 1944), World War
 II taking of Paris by Allied troops pursuing the
 retreating German army; the first Allied troops
 into the city were French.

Paris Peace Accords (January 27, 1973), the
 agreement negotiated by 
LE DUC THO and Henry
 
KISSINGER, after years of U.S.-North Vietnamese
 negotiation, which ended American participation in
 the 
VIETNAM WAR. Remaining U.S. forces were
 withdrawn in return for a promise to return
 American prisoners of war. North and South Vietnam
 entered into a period of truce, although
 substantial North Vietnamese forces remained in
 South Vietnam. Small-scale hostilities soon
 resumed, and in 1975 a final North Vietnamese
 offensive destroyed South Vietnamese resistance.
 After the Paris Peace Accords there were
 allegations that many Americans were still being
 held in North Vietnam and Laos, and a campaign was
 launched to free any still being held.

Paris Peace Conference (January 18-June 28, 1919),
 conference of the victorious World War I 
ALLIES,
 which organized the 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS; agreed on
 the disposition of several former 
CENTRAL POWERS'
 colonial possessions, setting up a mandate system
 for some of them; set the level and form of
 reparations; and agreed on the Central Powers'
 territorial losses and restrictions. It also set up
 several new European nations and adjusted the
 boundaries of others. The conference concluded with
 the Treaty of 
VERSAILLES, signed on June 28,
 1919, after considerable German resistance and
 preparation for military action on the part of the
 Allies. Also signed were the Treaty of
 
SAINT-GERMAIN with Austria, the Treaty of
 
NEUILLY with Bulgaria, the Treaty of 
TRIANON
 with Hungary, and the Treaties of 
SEVRES and
 
LAUSANNE with Turkey.

Park Chung Hee (1917-79), South Korean officer who
 fought in the Japanese army during World War II,
 becoming a South Korean army officer after the war.
 In May 1961, then a general, he took power in a
 coup, and kept power as an elected president until
 1971. Facing growing opposition, he openly assumed
 dictatorial power in 1971, ruling by decree and
 intensifying his repression of all opposition,
 while successfully focusing on the
 industrialization of South Korea. He was
 assassinated on October 26, 1979, by the head of
 his own Central Intelligence Agency.

Parker, Alton Brooks (1852-1926), U.S. lawyer and
 judge, who was the Democratic presidential nominee
 in 1904, and was defeated by Theodore 
ROOSEVELT,
 thereafter resuming his legal career.

Parker, Bonnie, and Clyde Barrow, U.S. criminals of
 the early 1930s, who as "Bonnie and Clyde"
 committed at least 13 murders and scores of armed
 robberies throughout the Southwest, before being
 killed in police ambush near Giblans, Louisiana, in
 May 1934. Parker had a strong appetite for
 publicity, sending photos and writing letters and
 poems to newspapers, among them "The Ballad of
 Bonnie and Clyde," which was later set to music.
 The pair became folk heroes in their time and
 place; in 1967 Faye Dunaway and Warren Beatty
 played them in the motion picture Bonnie and Clyde.


Parkinson's disease (parkinsonism), neurological
 disease often involving muscular rigidity, slow
 movement, and tremors, identified in the 19th
 century, but only in the 20th century found to
 result from lack of dopamine needed to ensure
 proper neural connections in the brain. From the
 late 1960s, many Parkinson's disease patients were
 helped by a medication called levodopa, or L-dopa,
 which causes the body to produce the missing
 dopamine. In 1986, Mexican physician Ignacio
 Navarro Madrazo claimed great benefits from
 implanting adrenal tissue in the brain, but other
 physicians were unable to reproduce successful
 results.

Parks, Rosa (1913- ), U.S. Black civil rights
 trailblazer, whose action in refusing to give up
 her seat to a White bus passenger in Montgomery,
 Alabama, on December 1, 1955, led to the
 organization of the 
MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT, the
 emergence of Martin Luther 
KING, Jr., as a civil
 rights leader, and the development of the modern
 American 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT.

particle accelerator, alternate name for an
 
ACCELERATOR or "atom smasher."

particles, in physics, the minute subdivisions of
 matter that make up the atom. In the early 20th
 century, the basic pieces in the 
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 were thought to be the 
NEUTRON, PROTON, and
 
ELECTRON. But by mid-century it became clear that
 these were themselves made up of-and "decayed"
 into-smaller particles. In 1946 Murray 
GELL-MANN
 and other researchers found previously unknown
 particles with qualities later called
 
STRANGENESS; in 1964 Gell-Mann and Richard
 
FEYNMAN (and independently, George Zweig)
 outlined a theory based on various particles called
 
QUARKS. In the century's last decade research
 continued, with no one sure that the absolutely
 fundamental, indivisible particles had yet all been
 identified.

particle-wave duality, alternate name for
 
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY.

Parti Quebecois, Quebec separatist party formed in
 1968 by Rene 
LEVESQUE; it became the ruling party
 in Quebec from 1976 to 1985, with Levesque as
 premier. The party lost the 1980 referendum on
 opening sovereignty negotiations with the Canadian
 government, and became a small minority party after
 its 1985 electoral defeat.

Passchendaele, an alternate name for the third
 Battle of 
YPRES (July 31-November 10, 1917), in
 which British forces suffered an estimated 320,000
 casualties, while gaining only 5 miles, finally
 taking the small Belgian village of Passchendaele.


Pasternak, Boris Leonidovich (1890-1960), Soviet
 novelist and poet who was recognized as a major
 poet in the early 1920s but then fell into disfavor
 with the Soviet government. In 1955 he wrote Dr.
 Zhivago, the classic testament of an artist who
 remained free despite an authoritarian government;
 it was published in Italy in 1957. He was awarded
 the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958, but was
 pressured by his government to reject it, his work
 emerging only later in the Soviet Union.

Pathet Lao, the army of the Communist movement in
 Laos, organized in 1950 to fight the French during
 the 
INDOCHINA WAR; it went on to win the 
LAOTIAN

 CIVIL WAR. A key organizer of the Pathet Lao was
 Prince 
SOUPHANOUVONG, later Laotian head of
 state; another was 
KAYSONE PHOMVIHANE, later
 prime minister.

Patton, George Smith (1885-1945), U.S. officer, who
 saw service in Mexico and as a tank officer in
 World War I. During World War II he commanded
 substantial American forces during the invasions of
 North Africa and Sicily, but became involved in a
 much-publicized incident of physical and verbal
 abuse of a wounded soldier and lost his command. He
 headed the U.S. Third Army during the European
 campaign, relieved besieged 
BASTOGNE during the
 Battle of the 
BULGE, and led his forces across
 Germany to meet the advancing Soviets at the end of
 the war. He was military governor of Bavaria after
 the war, but his propensity to talk himself into
 difficulty once again surfaced, and he was relieved
 of his command in October 1945; he died in an
 automobile accident that December.

Paul VI, Pope (Giovani Battista Montini;
 1898-1978), Italian priest, ordained in 1920, who
 became a cardinal in 1958 and pope 1963-78. He
 succeeded 
JOHN XXIII in 1963. In 1965 he finished
 
VATICAN II, which John XIII had initiated, and
 then spent much of his tenure working with the
 issues raised by Vatican II. On societal matters,
 he tended to pursue the objectives of Vatican II,
 fostering ecumenicism, moves toward peace, and aid
 to developing nations. On personal, religous, and
 church matters he took a more conservative view,
 braking moves toward organizational reforms and
 sharply restating opposition to birth control.

Pauli, Wolfgang (1900-58), Austrian-American
 physicist, who in 1925 developed the exclusion
 principle, stating that only one 
ELECTRON could
 occupy a specific, single state within an atom, for
 which he was awarded the 1945 Nobel Prize for
 Physics. In 1931, concerned with a mass-energy
 imbalance within the then-current 
ATOMIC

 STRUCTURE, he proposed the existence of a
 massless, chargeless 
PARTICLE (later named a
 
NEUTRINO), which was finally discovered in 1956.
 Working mostly in America from the 1930s, Pauli
 also made major contributions to 
QUANTUM THEORY.


Pauling, Linus Carl (1901- ), U.S. chemist, who did
 key work in the 1930s on bonds between atoms, as
 outlined in his highly influential Nature of the
 Chemical Bond (1939). In the early 1950s, he
 suggested that protein molecules had a helical, or
 spiraling, form; this idea was later used by
 Francis 
CRICK and James 
WATSON in their model
 of 
DNA, which has a 
DOUBLE HELIX structure. For
 that and other work on molecular structure, notably
 on enzymes, Pauling was given the 1954 Nobel Prize
 for Chemistry. After the development of the 
ATOMIC

 BOMB, Pauling became an active campaigner for
 nuclear disarmament, winning the 1962 Nobel Peace
 Prize, only the second person (after Marie 
CURIE)
 to win two Nobel Prizes. In 1970 he made the
 controversial contention that 
VITAMIN C was a
 preventative for the common cold.

Paulus, Friedrich (1890-1957), commander of the
 German Sixth Army who failed to take 
STALINGRAD
 and then failed to extricate his forces, ultimately
 surrendering what remained of his army, to the
 great discomfort of Adolf 
HITLER. Taken prisoner,
 he later defected to the Soviets.

Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich (1849-1936), Russian
 physiologist, whose work on animal behavior laid
 the basis for modern 
BEHAVIORISM. In his most
 famous experiment, he found that a dog used to a
 bell sounding when food is given, soon learns to
 salivate at the sound of the bell alone. He called
 this pattern of learned response to a given
 stimulus a conditioned reflex, and spent more than
 30 years exploring this form of learning, which he
 called conditioning.

payola disc jockey scandal, scandal generated by a
 1959-60 congressional investigation of record
 company bribery of disc jockeys to play their
 records on the air. The investigation resulted in
 the firings of many disc jockeys, some
 prosecutions, and the anti-payola law of 1960.

Paz Estenssoro, Victor (1907- ), Bolivian economist
 and democratic political leader, founder in 1941 of
 the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement, and
 three-time president of Bolivia (1952-56, 1960-64,
 1985- ). He was in exile from 1946 to 1951 after an
 army coup, and again from 1964 to 1971, after a
 coup toppled his government.

PC, popular shorthand for 
PERSONAL COMPUTER, a
 compact but capacious device introduced in 1975.

PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), toxic chemical
 used from the 1920s in a wide range of products,
 including an oil found in electrical transformers;
 by 1977 it was found to be linked to 
CANCER,
 birth defects, and liver disorders. Though banned
 that year from production in the United States,
 PCBs were still to be found in many parts of the
 environment, including 
TOXIC WASTE DUMPS, being
 extremely slow to break down and requiring
 concerted effort for effective cleaning up, as in
 New York's Hudson River in the 1980s.

Peace Corps, U.S. volunteer international service
 organization, proposed by then-Senator John F.
 
KENNEDY during the 1960 presidential campaign,
 and established by law in 1961. Volunteers live in
 the communities in which they work; most teach or
 work in agriculture, health services, or other
 developmental projects.

peace for our time, hopeful phrase by British prime
 minister Neville 
CHAMBERLAIN, broadcasting to the
 nation on his return from 
MUNICH, September 30,
 1938; from "I believe it is peace for our time."

peace, land, and bread, a 
BOLSHEVIK slogan before
 and during the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION of 1917.

Pearl Harbor attack (December 7, 1941), the
 Japanese surprise air attack on the U.S. Pacific
 fleet, at anchor in Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii, and
 on the military airfields of the island, bringing
 the United States into World War II. The Japanese
 fleet, from which the 360 planes of the attack
 force came had been at sea since November 25. Three
 U.S. battleships were sunk, one capsized, and four
 were heavily damaged; many other smaller vessels
 were sunk or damaged; and over 250 American planes
 were destroyed, most of them on the ground. There
 were almost 5,000 American casualties; Japanese
 losses were light. But the key vessels in the
 Pacific fleet, the carriers Lexington, Saratoga and
 Enterprise, were at sea and survived the disaster;
 the Japanese attack did not destroy the main
 elements of the American Pacific fleet, as was soon
 made clear at 
MIDWAY.

Pearse, Patrick Henry (1879-1916), Irish poet and
 teacher, who was an early member of the 
IRISH

 VOLUNTEERS, a chief organizer of the 
EASTER

 RISING of 1916, and commander-in-chief of Irish
 forces during the rising. Pearse was executed in
 Dublin on May 3, 1916.

Pearson, Lester Bowles (1897-1972), Canadian
 diplomat from 1928, who was a founder of the
 
UNITED NATIONS, ambassador to the United States,
 1945-46, and head of Canada's UN delegation before
 becoming Canada's minister of external affairs,
 1948-57. He entered parliament as a Liberal in
 1948. Pearson played a major role in resolving the
 Palestine crisis of 1947-48, in other peacekeeping
 efforts, and especially in the resolution of the
 
SUEZ CRISIS, for which he received the 1957 Nobel
 Peace Prize. He became Liberal party leader in
 1958, and was prime minister 1963-68, during his
 tenure authorizing the arming of U.S. nuclear
 weapons on Canadian soil and resisting a growing
 
QUEBEC SEPARATIST MOVEMENT.

Peary, Robert Edwin (1856-1920), U.S. explorer who
 led the first party to reach the 
NORTH POLE, for
 which he was named an honorary rear admiral by the
 U.S. Navy. Earlier a surveyor in Central America
 and explorer in Greenland, Peary made several
 failed attempts on the North Pole. He finally
 succeeded on April 6, 1909, accompanied by Matthew
 A. 
HENSON and four Eskimos, though some disputed
 his claim even into the 1980s. A former associate,
 Dr. Frederick A. Cook, claimed to have reached the
 North Pole in 1908, though his claim was generally
 discounted.

Peenemunde, site of 
ROCKET research laboratories
 on the northern German coast, where the 
V-1 and
 
V-2 
BOMBS were developed and tested during
 World War II, and therefore the target of massive
 Allied bombing raids, notably in 1943.

Peking Man, fossil remains of early humans,
 formerly called Sinanthropus Pekinensis but now
 simply regarded as belonging to the species Homo
 erectus. They were found in Choukoutien
 (Zhoukoudian) Cave near Peking (Beijing), China, in
 1927 by paleoanthropologists, including P'ei
 Wen-chung, Davidson Black, and Pierre 
TEILHARD DE

 CHARDIN. The remains, perhaps 250,000-500,000
 years old, were mysteriously lost during World War
 II, though casts had been taken and like fossils
 were later found.

Pelton, Ronald, a U.S. National Security Agency
 employee who sold classified communications
 information to the Soviet Union during the early
 1980s; he was arrested in 1985 and sentenced to
 life imprisonment.

P'eng Te-huai (1898-1974), Chinese soldier who
 became a Communist general, second only to 
ZHU

 DE, during the course of the 22-year 
CHINESE

 CIVIL WAR. He led Communist advance forces during
 the 
LONG MARCH, was field commander of the Eighth
 Route Army during the 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR, and was
 commander of Chinese forces in the 
KOREAN WAR. In
 1959 he opposed 
MAO ZEDONG's 
GREAT LEAP FORWARD
 and was expelled from the Communist party, also
 losing all official positions. He was later
 posthumously rehabilitated.

penicillin, wonder drug of the 20th century, an
 
ANTIBIOTIC effective as a cure for a wide range
 of diseases, including 
SYPHILIS, tuberculosis,
 and bacterial infections such as scarlet fever.
 Produced by a mold, penicillin was discovered by
 Alexander 
FLEMING in 1928 and isolated and
 refined for medical use in England in 1940 by
 Australian-British pathologist Howard Walter Florey
 and German-British biochemist Ernst Boris Chain,
 the three sharing the 1945 Nobel Prize for
 Physiology or Medicine. Rapid large-scale
 production made penicillin available for use in the
 armed forces during World War II and then widely in
 the general public. Penicillin's structure was
 established in 1949 by Dorothy 
HODGKIN, using an
 early 
COMPUTER. Even after the development of
 other antibiotics, penicillin remained the drug of
 choice in many situations, though some people
 developed a severe 
ALLERGY, leading to possible
 deadly anaphylactic shock.

Pentagon Papers, a Defense Department top secret
 study of Southeast Asian policy that detailed a
 long series of government secret decisions and
 falsehoods. Daniel 
ELLSBERG, a U.S. military
 adviser who had come to oppose the 
VIETNAM WAR,
 took parts of the study to the New York Times,
 which published them beginning in June 1969. The
 federal government attempted to prohibit
 publication, but on June 30 the Supreme Court
 upheld the newspaper's right to publish; the
 publication contributed greatly to adverse public
 perceptions regarding the war. Ellsberg and Anthony
 Russo were later prosecuted, but government
 wiretapping and the burgling of Ellsberg's
 psychiatrist's office by a White House special
 unit-the same "plumbers"' unit that figured so
 largely in the 
WATERGATE scandal-caused
 withdrawal of all charges in May 1973, after
 mistrials had been declared. In 1974 several former
 White House figures were convicted in connection
 with the break-in.

Pentagon procurement scandal, an alleged
 multibillion dollar set of frauds, involving many
 defense contractors, consultants, and defense
 department procurement personnel; it was generally
 charged by the U.S. federal government in June
 1988, after a 2-year investigation. Specific
 indictments, suspensions, guilty pleas, and
 convictions began to flow in late 1988 and early
 1989.

People's Republic of China, name of 
CHINA from
 1949.

People's Temple, the cult led by James "Jim"
 
JONES into the 
JONESTOWN mass suicides and
 murders of 1978.

Peres, Shimon (Shimon Persky; (1923- ), Israeli
 political leader who was defense minister 1974-77,
 after a long career in subcabinet-level positions.
 He was prime minister in the 1984-86 coalition
 government.

perestroika, a Soviet political slogan introduced
 by Mikhail 
GORBACHEV, literally meaning
 "restructuring" and describing large-scale
 Gorbachev-era reforms of the Soviet economy and of
 Soviet society, including the development of a far
 more market-oriented economy, considerable private
 ownership of land and other productive resources,
 and decentralization of economic planning,
 production, and distribution. Perestroika and
 
GLASNOST were the main early themes of the
 
GORBACHEV era.

Perez de Cuellar, Javier (1920- ), Peruvian lawyer
 and diplomat who had been Peru's ambassador to the
 Soviet Union (1969-71), head of Peru's 
UNITED

 NATIONS delegation (1971-75), and a UN mediator
 and undersecretary before becoming fifth UN
 secretary-general in 1982. In that position, he
 faced a series of major and continuing regional
 conflicts and continuing disputes, most of them
 requiring superpower mediation, but he played a
 significant peacemaking role in mediating the
 negotiations leading to the end of the 
IRAN-IRAQ

 WAR.

Perkins, Frances (1882-1965), U.S. teacher, social
 worker, and economist, who from 1910 became active
 in developing research and reform legislation aimed
 at safeguarding and improving the safety, health,
 working conditions, and compensation of working
 women and children. From 1919 to 1933 she was
 successively a member of New York State's
 Industrial Commission, member and chairman of the
 state Industrial Board, and state industrial
 commissioner, in 1933 going with Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT to Washington when he became president.
 As secretary of labor, 1933-45, she played a major
 role in developing and administering a wide range
 of 
NEW DEAL labor and social programs, with
 special emphasis on the the 
FAIR LABOR STANDARDS

 ACT. She was the first woman to hold a cabinet
 position.

Peron, Juan Domingo (1895-1974), Argentinian
 officer, who became minister of labor after
 participating in the 1943 military coup and in that
 position began building the labor support that
 would become a mainstay of his future power. He was
 imprisoned briefly in 1945, after another military
 coup, emerging to successfully run for the
 presidency in 1946. From then until September 1955,
 in close association with his wife, Eva (Evita)
 
PERON, until her death in 1952, he developed a
 dictatorship in Argentina. He repressed opposition,
 destroyed freedom of expression, and attempted to
 develop nationalized industries into a corporate
 state along Italian fascist lines. Peron was
 deposed by a military coup in 1955, fleeing into
 exile, but returned to Argentina in 1972, and was
 reelected to the presidency 1973-74. He died in
 office and was succeeded by his wife, Isabel, who
 ruled until the military coup of 1976.

Peron, Maria Eva "Evita" (Maria Eva Duarte;
 1919-52), Argentinian actress who was the wife and
 political partner of Juan 
PERON. She played a
 major role in developing labor support for Peron
 and in purging the labor movement and Argentine
 society of opponents after coming to power. Her
 death, of natural causes in 1952, was a huge and
 perhaps fatal blow to her husband's regime. Evita,
 a popular play of the U.S. musical theater, was
 very loosely based on her life story.

Pershing, John Joseph "Blackjack" (1860-1948), U.S.
 general, who commanded the U.S. Expeditionary Force
 that invaded Mexico in pursuit of Pancho 
VILLA's
 forces in 1916-17, and who in 1917 became commander
 of what was ultimately the 2-million-strong
 American Expeditionary Force in Europe. In 1919, he
 became the first American General of the Armies.

Persian Gulf War, an alternate name for the
 
IRAN-IRAQ WAR of 1980-88.

personal computer (PC), small, powerful 
COMPUTER,
 using many prepackaged "plug-in" programs, widely
 used in homes, schools, and small businesses. The
 Altair PC, sold in kit form in 1975, was the first
 personal computer. The first fully assembled PC,
 the Apple II, went on the market 2 years later.

Petain, Henri Phillippe (1856-1951), French World
 War I general whose Second Army held 
VERDUN for 6
 months against heavy German attacks in 1916. He
 became French commander-in-chief in 1917 and held
 that position until the end of the war; he was made
 a marshal of France in 1918. In 1925-26 he
 commanded French forces during the 
RIF WAR, and
 held other official positions during the interwar
 period. He became premier of France on June 16,
 1940, immediately sought an armistice, and formed
 the 
VICHY government of unoccupied France on July
 10. He collaborated with the Nazis for the balance
 of the war, and was sentenced to death afterward, a
 sentence commuted to life imprisonment by Charles
 
DE GAULLE.

Petlyura, Simon Vasilievich (1879-1926), Ukrainian
 nationalist leader, who attempted to set up an
 independent Ukrainian state after World War I. He
 was a Polish ally in the 
SOVIET-POLISH WAR of
 1920. His forces also engaged in severe anti-Jewish
 pogroms in the Ukraine during this period, and in
 an attempt to take revenge for those pogroms he was
 assassinated in Paris on May 26, 1926.

Petrograd Soviet (Council) of Workers and Soldiers
 Deputies, a council set up in March 1917, composed
 of elected representatives from workers' groups and
 military detachments in the Petrograd area. It
 developed substantial nationwide influence in the
 months that followed, and also served as a model
 for other such councils throughout Russia. In
 September the Petrograd and other key soviets
 throughout the country were won over by the
 
BOLSHEVIKS, and the Petrograd Soviet became the
 key instrument used by the Bolsheviks in activating
 the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION.

Phalange party, Lebanese Maronite Christian
 conservative political party and militia organized
 in 1936 and to some extent influenced by the
 thinking of Spanish fascism and its 
FALANGE. It
 was led by Pierre 
GEMAYEL until his son, Bashir,
 acceded to leadership in the mid-1970s. The
 organization fought on the side of Camille
 
CHAMOUN during the 
LEBANESE CIVIL WAR of 1958,
 and became the main Christian militia force during
 the 
LEBANESE WARS of the 1970s and 1980s; in the
 mid-1970s it also made war on and destroyed other
 Christian militias. The Phalange was covertly
 allied with the Israelis during the 1970s, that
 alliance becoming open during the 1982 invasion of
 Lebanon. On September 15, 1982, one day after the
 assassination of Bashir Gemayel, Phalange forces
 massacred 400 or more men, women, and children at
 the 
SABRA AND SHATILLA Palestinian camps in
 Beirut. Israeli forces did nothing to stop them,
 inaction that brought worldwide charges of Israeli
 complicity in the murders, charges the Israelis
 denied.

Philby, Kim (Harold Adrian Russell Philby;
 1912-88), leading British spy who, in fact, was a
 Soviet spy from his college days at Cambridge in
 the 1930s, along with his college friends and
 Soviet espionage network colleagues Anthony
 
BLUNT, Guy 
BURGESS, and Donald 
MACLEAN. From
 1940, when he joined British military intelligence,
 to 1963, when he fled to the Soviet Union, he was
 an important Soviet espionage agent, working in
 both Britain and the United States. He continued to
 work in Soviet intelligence after his arrival in
 the Soviet Union.

Philip, duke of Edinburgh (1921- ), son of Prince
 Andrew of Greece and Princess Alice of Battenberg
 and great-great-grandson of Queen Victoria of
 Britain; he was named duke of Edinburgh before his
 marriage to Princess Elizabeth in 1947; she became
 
ELIZABETH II in 1952. Prince Philip saw service
 in the Royal Navy during World War II.

Philippine Revolution (February 1986), a series of
 events generated by the national election of
 February 7, 1986, which pitted Corazon 
AQUINO
 against incumbent Ferdinand 
MARCOS, whose 21-year
 dictatorship had been greatly weakened since the
 1983 assassination of Benigno Aquino, husband of
 Corazon Aquino. Although Aquino won the election,
 fraudulent government figures gave the election to
 Marcos. She claimed victory, setting off 2 weeks of
 massive demonstrations; civil war threatened. U.S.
 representatives strongly pressed Marcos to resign,
 and support for Aquino grew in both the Philippines
 and the United States. On February 22 Army Chief of
 Staff Fidel Ramos and Defense Minister Juan Ponce
 Enrile went over to Aquino, as did substantial
 sections of the armed forces, and public
 demonstrations grew. Marcos flew to Hawaiian exile
 on February 25, later to be threatened with
 prosecution the United States for alleged financial
 malfeasance; Aquino set about restoring
 constitutional government though forced to continue
 the long war against Communist insurgents, and to
 withstand several rightwing coup attempts in the
 years after the revolution, most notably the failed
 coup of early December 1989, involving elements of
 the army, with the covert support of several highly
 placed Philippine politicians.

Philippine Sea, Battle of the (June 19-20, 1944), a
 major World War II sea battle occurring side by
 side with the invasion of 
SAIPAN. Japanese naval
 forces attacked far stronger U.S. naval forces, in
 the process losing three of Japan's remaining
 aircraft carriers, more than 450 airplanes and
 their pilots, and many smaller ships. American
 losses were limited to fewer than 100 airplanes,
 most of whose pilots and crew were saved, and no
 major ships.

Philippine War of Independence and
 Philippine-American War, conflict that began in
 1896 with a successful rebellion against Spanish
 rule, led by Emilio Aguinaldo. But the United
 States took and held the Philippines in 1898,
 during the Spanish-American War. Aguinaldo became
 first president of the Philippine republic on
 January 23, 1899, and war with the United States
 began on February 4. By 1900, the war had spread
 throughout the Philippines, involving 50,000-60,000
 American troops led by General Arthur MacArthur and
 smaller numbers of Filipinos, in Aguinaldo's army
 and associated guerrilla forces. Aguinaldo was
 captured on March 23, 1901, and declared his
 allegiance to the United States in April; some
 elements of his forces and some Moslem forces in
 the south held out until 1906. There were an
 estimated 100,000-200,000 Filipino war dead-most
 succumbed due to famine and disease-and 4,000-5,000
 American fatalities.

Philippines (Republic of the Philippines), former
 Spanish colony; at the turn of the century the site
 of the 
PHILIPPINE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE and
 
PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR. After U.S. victory in
 the 
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR and then over the
 Philippine forces of Emilio 
AGUINALDO, the
 country was a U.S. protectorate until its
 occupation by Japanese forces during World War II.
 On July 4, 1946, the republic became an independent
 nation. The 21-year dictatorship of Ferdinand
 
MARCOS was ended by the 
PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION
 of February 1986; the government of Corazon
 
AQUINO then restored democracy.

Philippines, Battle of the (December 1941-May
 1942), World War II battle, on December 8, 1941,
 that followed the Japanese bombers' destruction at
 
CLARK FIELD of most of the U.S. air force in the
 Philippines. Japanese amphibious landings began on
 December 10, and on December 22 the main Japanese
 invasion force landed on Luzon. Manila, an open
 city, was taken 4 days later, the much stronger
 Japanese forces then pursuing U.S. and Philippine
 forces south, engaging them on 
BATAAN peninsula
 in March, and forcing surrender on April 9. The
 Japanese then besieged and bombarded the island of
 
CORREGIDOR, and mounted an amphibious assault on
 May 5. The island surrendered on May 6, and defense
 forces on several other islands also surrendered in
 May, although Philippine and American guerrillas
 continued to fight the Japanese throughout the war.


Philippines, Liberation of the (January-August
 1945), retaking of the Philippines by the Allies
 during World War II. On January 9, 1945, American
 troops landed at Lingayen Gulf on Luzon and began
 to fight their way south toward Manila. By late
 January they were approaching Manila, joining
 troops landed near Manila beginning January 30.
 Manila fell in the first week of February, an
 estimated 17,000 of its 18,000-20,000 Japanese
 defenders fighting to the death until late
 February. Bataan and Corregidor fell in February,
 although mopping-up operations continued through
 April. The remaining Japanese then fled into the
 mountains, there holding out until the end of the
 war, as did Japanese forces on Mindanao.

Phony War (September 1939-May 1940), on the Western
 Front the period between the outbreak of World War
 II and the German attack on France, Belgium, and
 Holland, a period characterized by so little
 military activity as to seem to its participants
 hardly a war at all.

phosgene, one of the toxic gases widely used in
 
WORLD WAR I as part of 
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

 WARFARE.

photoelectric effect, ejection of 
ELECTRONS from
 a metal plate in the presence of light, forming the
 basis of 
TELEVISION and 
RADAR, an effect
 discovered in the 19th century but explained in
 1905 by Albert 
EINSTEIN, using Max 
PLANCK's
 idea of energy existing in 
QUANTUM form. The
 effect itself could be used in 
ELECTRON TUBES as
 light detectors, where light was converted to
 electrical signals. The first practical
 photoelectric cell was developed in 1904 by Johann
 Phillip Ludwig Elster.

photon, discrete unit-or quantum-of electromagnetic
 energy, originally specifically referring to light.
 The existence of such discrete units was first
 suggested in 1900 by Max 
PLANCK, and was
 supported by Albert 
EINSTEIN's explanation of the
 
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT (1905). In 1923, Arthur
 Holly 
COMPTON introduced the idea of the photon,
 a particle of light with a dual nature, acting in
 some ways like a wave and in others like a
 particle, a key contribution to 
QUANTUM THEORY.


photosynthesis, process by which plants use the
 green pigment 
CHLOROPHYLL and sunlight to
 transform carbon dioxide and water into vital
 nutrients, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and
 fats. This key sequence of chemical reactions was
 first worked out 1945-57 by Melvin 
CALVIN.

Piaget, Jean (1896-1980), Swiss psychologist, who
 pioneered in studying how children develop basic
 concepts such as space, causation, and time. Using
 a series of now-classic experiments, some involving
 what appear to young children as optical illusions,
 Piaget developed a theory that children pass
 through a regular sequence of stages, in each of
 which key new understandings force them to modify
 their view of the world.

Piccard, Auguste Antoine (1884-1962), and Jean Felix
 Piccard (1884-1963), Swiss twins, a physicist and
 a chemist, respectively, who made significant
 contributions to the study of both atmosphere and
 ocean. For experiments on cosmic rays in the upper
 atmosphere, with its dangerously low pressure,
 Auguste developed a balloon with a pressurized
 cabin, an innovation later adopted in 
AIRPLANES.
 In 1931 he and Paul Kipfer ascended to a world
 record of nearly 52,000 feet; they were feared
 lost, becoming celebrities when they landed safely
 in Austria. In 1934, Jean and his American wife
 Jeannette Ridlon ascended to nearly 58,000 feet,
 later making several innovations in balloon
 technology; after his death she worked for the
 
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
 (NASA) as an expert on the upper atmosphere.
 Auguste also applied pressurized cabin technology
 to ocean study, developing the 
BATHYSCAPE in
 1948. His son Jacques (1922- ), built the
 bathyscape Trieste, which in 1953 descended over
 10,000 feet, setting a world record; by 1960
 Jacques and U.S. Navy lieutenant Don Walsh had
 descended over 35,000 feet to explore the Pacific
 floor. Jacques also focused on building
 self-contained submersibles for long-term use; in
 1969 his Ben Franklin took a six-man crew on a
 1,650-mile journey, floating with the Gulf Stream.


Pickering, Thomas Reeve (1931- ), U.S. diplomat, a
 career foreign service officer from 1959, who held
 a long series of diplomatic posts, including
 ambassadorships to Jordan, Nigeria, El Salvador,
 and Israel, before being named United Nations
 ambassador by President George 
BUSH, December 6,
 1988.

Pierre Hotel robbery (January 2, 1972), the looting
 of safe deposit boxes at New York City's Pierre
 Hotel by a band of armed robbers, which realized at
 least $4 million in jewels, securities, and cash,
 and was the largest hotel robbery in U.S. history.
 Although some of the stolen property was later
 recovered, the robbery was never solved.

pile (atomic pile), early alternate name for a
 
NUCLEAR REACTOR, more specifically the
 conglomerate of material massed for the 
NUCLEAR

 FISSION reaction.

Pilsudski, Josef Klemens (1867-1935), commander of
 Polish forces and leader of Poland during the
 
SOVIET-POLISH WAR of 1920. From youth Pilsudski
 was involved in the anti-Russian underground, and
 he spent 15 years (1887-1902) in Siberian exile. He
 was a leader of the Polish Socialist party,
 organized underground terrorist groups before World
 War I, and fought on the German side as leader of
 the Polish Brigade during the early years of World
 War I; later he refused to support the Germans and
 was imprisoned. After the 1918 armistice, he became
 Polish commander-in-chief. In partial eclipse
 during the early years of the Polish Republic, he
 led a military coup in May 1926, and from then
 until his death was de facto dictator of Poland.

Piltdown Man, supposed human-like fossil remains
 found on Piltdown Common, in England's Sussex,
 1911-12 by Charles Dawson, and named Eoanthropus
 dawsoni (Dawn Man). Always questioned by some, the
 remains were proved fraudulent in the 1950s after
 comparative analyses with other fossil finds,
 
RADIOCARBON DATING, and chemical analyses showed
 them to be only a few centuries old, and doctored.
 The hoax's perpetrator remains unknown.

Pincus, Gregory Goodwin (1903-67), American
 biologist, who in 1951-55 developed the 
BIRTH

 CONTROL PILL, using synthetic 
HORMONES to
 interrupt a woman's monthly ovulation-menstruation
 cycle, so preventing conception.

P'Inghsingkuan, Battle of (September 25, 1937), the
 ambush of a Japanese division by a division of the
 Chinese Communist Eighth Route Army. The action was
 of little military significance, but was a
 considerable morale builder for the Chinese.

Ping-Pong diplomacy, the popular term for the April
 1968 Chinese Communist invitation of the U.S.
 Ping-Pong team to China, signaling a new
 willingness to begin the process of normalization
 of relations between the two countries, after
 almost two decades of estrangement.

Pinochet Ugarte, Augusto (1915- ), Chilean
 dictator, who as army commander-in-chief mounted
 the September 11, 1973, military coup that toppled
 the elected government of Chile and whose military
 government then embarked on a long reign of terror.
 From the mid-1980s, Pinochet was faced with growing
 internal opposition to the dictatorship. He
 attempted to appease his opponents with small
 concessions and in late 1988 made major
 concessions, including an October plebescite, which
 he lost. In November 1988, he announced that he
 would not be a presidential candidate in the
 scheduled December 1989 presidential election,
 though he and his associates continued to control
 the country.

Pioneer, series of U.S. observational and research
 
SATELLITES. Pioneer 10, launched in 1971, was the
 first spacecraft to fly by the planet 
JUPITER,
 passing within 81,000 miles in December 1973,
 before hurtling beyond 
NEPTUNE in 1983. The first
 human-made object to leave the solar system, it was
 still broadcasting data about the solar wind in the
 late 1980s. Pioneer 11 reached the vicinity of
 Saturn in 1979, revealing previously unknown moons.


Piper Alpha explosion (July 6, 1988), a series of
 explosions followed by a massive fire, destroying
 the North Sea oil rig Piper Alpha off Aberdeen,
 Scotland, and killing 167 people. It was the worst
 such disaster since the beginning of North Sea oil
 operations in 1968.

Pius X, Saint (Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto;
 1835-1914), Italian priest, ordained in 1858,
 cardinal and patriarch of Venice 1893, and pope
 from 1903 to 1914; he was beatified in 1951 and
 canonized in 1954. Deeply conservative, Pius X
 opposed the doctrine of modernism, which sought to
 reconcile Catholic doctrine with the main
 intellectual movements of the modern world,
 stressing instead close day-to-day personal
 involvement in religious observance and social
 action directed by the church hierarchy.

Pius XI (Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti;
 1857-1939), Italian priest, ordained in 1879, who
 became a cardinal 1921, and was pope from 1922 to
 1939. In 1929 he signed the 
LATERAN TREATY,
 recognizing the legitimacy of the Italian fascist
 government, in return for government recognition of
 Catholicism as the state religion, and of the
 independence and sovereignty of the Vatican. In
 1933, he signed a treaty with Nazi Germany,
 acquiescing to Nazi curbs on Catholic political
 action, although in 1937 he condemned both German
 fascism and all communism; in 1938, he generally
 condemned anti-Semitism.

Pius XII, (Eugenio Pacelli; 1876-1958), Italian
 priest, ordained in 1899, who became a cardinal in
 1929, Vatican secretary of state 1930-39, and pope
 1939-58. He negotiated the 1933 treaty with
 Germany, acquiescing to Nazi curbs on Catholic
 political action, although concurring in the
 late-1930s denunciations of Nazism and communism
 issued by 
PIUS XI. He maintained Vatican
 neutrality during World War II; afterward he was
 sharply attacked for having done little or nothing
 to try to avert or stop the Nazi mass murders of
 millions of Jews or the mass murders of millions of
 Gypsies, Poles, Russians, and others. During the
 postwar period he played a major political role in
 Italy, attacking communism and fostering Christian
 Democratic party growth.

Planck, Max Karl Ernst Ludwig (1858-1947), German
 physicist, who laid the basis for 
QUANTUM THEORY.
 In 1900, while working out a puzzling 
RADIATION
 problem, Planck made a key assumption: that energy
 exists in discrete units, which he called quanta
 (Latin for "units"). He also worked out the
 constant ratio between the size of a quantum and
 the frequency of radiation, the result now called
 Planck's constant. Though he himself had difficulty
 at first with the revolutionary nature of his
 quantum theory, by 1905 Albert 
EINSTEIN had used
 it to explain the 
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT, as Niels
 
BOHR did by 1913 in developing his model of
 
ATOMIC STRUCTURE. Planck's work, which won him
 the 1918 Nobel Prize for Physics, marked the end of
 classical physics and the beginning of modern
 physics.

plastics, synthetic substances that can be shaped
 into a wide variety of usable products. Made of
 long molecule chains called 
POLYMERS, plastics
 can be heated without melting and, while softened,
 can be molded into shapes that are retained on
 cooling. Building on 19th-century experiments with
 softening natural substances (which produced
 celluloid), Belgian-American chemist Leo Baekeland
 in 1909 developed the first wholly synthetic
 plastic, Bakelite. It was not used in commercial
 products until 1928, by which time the polymer
 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) had been discovered
 (1912). In 1937 Wallace A. Carothers of the U.S.
 firm of E. I. du Pont de Nemours developed the
 "superpolyamide" called nylon, which became popular
 for stockings and clothing during World War II,
 when silk supplies from Asia were cut off.
 Polyethylene, invented by the British and brought
 to the market in 1939, was a vital substance for
 use in 
RADAR and film; later it was commonly used
 to form trash cans, milk containers, shopping bags,
 and the like. Polyurethane, common in foam rubbers
 and adhesives, came along in 1937; epoxy resins,
 used as coatings and adhesives, in 1943. These and
 other types of plastics transformed manufacturing
 and packaging; from 1921 new machines were
 developed to produce plastics in sheets, a thin
 coating, molded containers, blown containers, or
 whatever shape might be desired. Plastics were so
 durable that they retained their cohesiveness long
 after their usefulness had ended, creating by the
 1970s a major garbage problem, and on both land and
 sea sometimes strangling animals. Some governments
 tried to meet the problem by collecting the plastic
 for reuse, offering a few cents per container for
 return. By the 1980s, scientists had even developed
 plastics that were deliberately designed to break
 down after some weeks in light or water.

plate tectonics, geological theory that the Earth
 is composed of some 20 plates of crust, several
 continent size, "floating" on a molten mantle.
 Earthquakes and volcanoes occur where the plates
 scrape against each other or slide one under
 another to be destroyed. New crust is formed at
 rifts, especially in sea floors, where the plates
 are moving apart-the basic theoretical mechanism
 supporting Alfred 
WEGENER's 
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
 theory. The key idea of sea-floor spreading was
 proposed by U.S. geologist Henry H. Hess in 1960,
 later modified by British geophysicists F. J. Vine
 and D. H. Matthews in 1963, and confirmed by
 surveys of the ocean floor showing the periodic
 reversals of Earth's magnetism in a series of
 strips on either side of ocean rifts.

Platt Amendment, an amendment to a U.S.
 appropriations bill in 1901, introduced by Senator
 Orville Platt, providing the terms on which the
 United States was to make its promised withdrawal
 of armed forces from Cuba, while holding Cuba as
 essentially a protectorate. The terms were embodied
 in the Cuban-American treaty of 1903.

Plekhanov, Georgi Valentinovich (1856-1919),
 Russian Marxist theoretician, the founder of the
 first Russian Marxist organization in 1883 and a
 founder of the Russian Social Democratic Labor
 party in 1898. In 1903, when that party split, he
 at first favored 
LENIN and the 
BOLSHEVIK side
 but soon returned to the more moderate views of the
 
MENSHEVIKS. He later went into exile, returning
 to Russia after the first 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION of
 1917. He fled the country again after the 
OCTOBER

 REVOLUTION, and died soon thereafter in Finland.


PLO, the initials of the 
PALESTINE LIBERATION

 ORGANIZATION.

Ploesti Raids (August 1, 1943), Allied bombing
 raids on the Ploesti oil fields in Rumania. They
 cost many planes, did some damage, and were notable
 for what were then long distances traveled by the
 bombers from their North African bases.

Pluto, ninth planet in the solar system, unknown
 before the 20th century; predicted from
 observations of astronomical irregularities by
 Percival 
LOWELL in 1905 and discovered in 1930 by
 Clyde Tombaugh.

plutonium, radioactive element first discovered in
 1940 by Glenn 
SEABORG and others. The plutonium
 239 (Pu-239) 
ISOTOPE is widely used for 
NUCLEAR

 FISSION in 
NUCLEAR REACTORS and military
 weapons. Pu-239 can be made by bombarding the more
 common form of 
URANIUM, U-238, and less Pu-239 is
 needed for fission than when uranium (U-235) alone
 is used. The world's first nuclear reactor, built
 by Enrico 
FERMI's team in 1942, demonstrated how
 to produce plutonium, which was used in the
 
TRINITY test of the 
ATOMIC BOMB at 
ALAMOGORDO
 and the atomic bomb at 
NAGASAKI in 1945.

Poincare, Raymond (1860-1934), French political
 leader who, as premier in 1912 was deeply involved
 in the building of the Allied coalition that went
 into World War I; he was wartime president of
 France. As premier again, 1922-24, he sent French
 troops into the 
RUHR when Germany failed to make
 reparations payments. He was the last premier
 (1926-29) of a then-stable France, before the onset
 of the 
GREAT DEPRESSION.

Poindexter, John Marlan (1936- ), U.S. naval
 officer who, in 1981, became military assistant to
 White House national security advisor Richard
 Allen. In 1983 he was deputy national security
 adviser and then national security adviser, in that
 position fostering increased U.S. intervention in
 Central America and Libya, and becoming deeply
 involved in the 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR. On November
 25 he resigned as national security adviser, and in
 December refused to testify before congressional
 committees on Fifth Amendment grounds. In July
 1987, with limited immunity, he did testify,
 admitting the withholding of information from
 Congress while defending his intent and asserting
 that President Ronald 
REAGAN knew nothing of the
 movement of Iranian arms payment money to the
 Contras. On March 16, 1988, he was indicted on
 several Iran-Contra-related charges; pretrial
 maneuvering continued during 1989.

Point Four Program, U.S. post-World War II foreign
 aid program generated in 1950 by the fourth point
 of President Harry 
TRUMAN'S 1949 inaugural
 address; it called for the supply of U.S.
 investment capital and personnel in agricultural
 and industrial development, science, health,
 education, and administration. Implementation of
 the programs was sporadic; they were also used as
 instruments of U.S. 
COLD WAR policy, to persuade
 and reward friendly countries.

poison gas, popular name for toxic chemicals used
 in 
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE.

Poison Squad, popular name for Harvey Washington
 
WILEY's U.S. Department of Agriculture chemists,
 who in the early 20th century tested food additives
 and adulteratives on themselves.

Poland (Polish People's Republic), until the end of
 World War I a country partitioned among Russia,
 Germany, and Austria. It was an independent nation
 during the interwar period. The German invasion of
 Poland on September 1, 1939, began World War II.
 The country was then partitioned again, pursuant to
 the 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT; occupied by German forces
 after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in
 1941; and occupied by Soviet forces after World War
 II. Some multiparty opposition was briefly
 tolerated after 1945, but the 1947 elections firmly
 established Poland as a one-party Soviet bloc
 state. During the 
GORBACHEV era Poland embarked
 on a new political course, in 1989 establishing the
 first non-Communist government in eastern Europe
 for 40 years.

Poland, invasion of (September 1, 1939), attack on
 Poland by massive German armies, beginning World
 War II. The attack was accompanied by powerful air
 attacks, which caught and destroyed most of the
 small Polish air force on the ground, destroyed
 roads and communications, and terrorized the
 population. The attack was led by armored
 formations, using 
BLITZKRIEG tactics, that easily
 penetrated and then routed thinly spread Polish
 armies. German armor reached Warsaw on September 8,
 and the Germans then besieged the city. Warsaw held
 out until September 27, 1939, and some smaller
 pockets of resistance lasted until early November.


Poland, partition of, division of Poland by Soviet
 and German forces, as agreed on by the terms of the
 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT of August 1939. On September 17,
 1939, Soviet troops invaded Poland from the east,
 taking part of Poland; German forces met them at
 the agreed-on partition line.

Polaroid Land Camera, camera that includes both
 negative film and positive paper, putting out a
 print within seconds; it was invented in 1947 by
 Edwin Herbert 
LAND.

Polhill, Robert one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, an American University professor, who
 was kidnapped on January 24, 1988.

polio (poliomyelitis or infantile paralysis),
 highly communicable viral disease causing paralysis
 and sometimes death, affecting not only children
 but also adults, such as Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT. In the United States alone, a major
 polio epidemic in 1916 caused more than 27,000
 cases, with whole regions of the country
 quarantined; panic resulted as many tried to leave
 crowded cities. The worst series of epidemics
 occurred in the United States between 1942 and
 1953, though outbreaks also occurred elsewhere,
 notably in Europe and Asia. In 1953, Jonas 
SALK
 introduced his 
POLIO VACCINE, at first
 experimentally, quickly making the disease a rarity
 in the United States. Albert 
SABIN'S vaccine,
 developed in 1956, had many advantages, and was
 adopted by the 
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO) in
 1957, for use in controlling polio in the rest of
 the world.

polio vaccine, protective serum against 
POLIO,
 first developed in 1952 by Jonas 
SALK. To act
 against all three polio strains, Salk developed a
 vaccine made from killed polio viruses, which
 produced immunity. He tested it in 1953, in the
 midst of an epidemic, and then moved to large-scale
 vaccination in 1954. Albert 
SABIN then developed
 a vaccine from deactivated live polio viruses, in
 1956. Because the Sabin vaccine was cheaper to
 make, easier to store, offered lifetime immunity,
 and could be given orally, it became the vaccine of
 choice, though it involved some risk; it was
 adopted in 1957 by the 
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

 (WHO) for use throughout the world.

Polisario (Popular Front for the Liberation of
 Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro), western Saharan
 revolutionary organization formed in 1973 to win
 independence from Spain. When Spain withdrew from
 the area in 1976, Polisario formed the Saharan Arab
 Democratic Republic; but the area was then claimed
 by Morocco and Mauritania, beginning a long
 guerrilla war in which Polisario operated first
 from Mauritania and then from Algeria. Mauritania
 withdrew in 1979, but Morocco then occupied all of
 the disputed area, and the war continued.

Polish campaign of 1944 (July-August 1944), the
 continuing late World War II summer offensive by
 Soviet armies moving into Poland, almost to Warsaw.
 There they paused for 2 months while the Germans
 across the Vistula River massacred tens of
 thousands of Polish Jews and other Poles engaged in
 the 
WARSAW GHETTO RISING.

Polish Corridor, the disputed Polish avenue to the
 sea along the Vistula River, between East Prussia
 and the rest of Germany; it was made part of Poland
 in the Treaty of 
VERSAILLES, but did not include
 the city of Danzig (Gdansk), which was made a free
 city. The Corridor and Danzig were major sources of
 Polish-German tension during the interwar period.
 Nazi intentions to annex the Corridor and Danzig in
 March 1939 were blocked by British guarantees of
 Polish independence; those guarantees were the
 proximate cause of Britain's entry into World War
 II, after the German of invasion of Poland in
 September.

Polish October (October 1956), part of the wave of
 unrest sweeping all Communist parties after
 
KRUSHCHEV'S SECRET SPEECH, which in Poland was
 coupled with long-standing nationalist and economic
 unrest, and was strong enough to topple the
 hard-line Stalinist government and bring Wladislaw
 
GOMULKA to power.

Politburo, the committee, or political bureau, at
 the top of the hierarchic organization of the
 
COMMUNIST PARTY OF THE SOVIET UNION, its
 membership being drawn from the Central Committee
 of that party. The name is also applied to the top
 committees of other Communist parties.

political power grows out of the barrel of a gun,
 statement by Chinese Communist leader 
MAO ZEDONG.


Pollard, Jonathan J., an employee of the U.S. Naval
 Intelligence Support Center, who was a spy for
 Israel. He and his wife, Anne Henderson Pollard,
 were convicted of espionage in 1987; he was
 sentenced to life imprisonment, she to a 5-year
 term.

Pol Pot (Tol Saut; Saloth Sar; 1928- ), Kampuchean
 (Cambodian) political leader, who became general
 secretary of the Communist Party of Kampuchea and
 organizer of the 
KHMER ROUGE army in 1963. He led
 the Khmer Rouge until their victory in the
 
CAMBODIAN CIVIL WAR, then became first prime
 minister of Kampuchea in 1976. He was the chief
 organizer of the 
CAMBODIAN HOLOCAUST, which
 killed millions of his own people. He resigned as
 prime minister after the successful Vietnamese
 invasion of Kampuchea during the 
KAMPUCHEA-VIETNAM

 WAR, to lead guerrilla forces fighting the
 Vietnamese.

polychlorinated biphenyls, full scientific name of
 PCBs, substances known since 1977 to be
 carcinogenic.

polymers, giant molecules consisting of long chains
 of linked shorter molecules, called monomers,
 repeating over and over; the name is Greek for
 "many units." Polymers occur in nature, but as
 German chemist Hermann Staudinger first discovered
 in 1922, 
PLASTICS are also made up of polymers.
 These long chains untangle themselves when heated
 but retain their molecular bonds, giving plastics
 their valued moldability and cohesiveness. Silicon,
 widely used in 
MICROPROCESSORS in modern
 
COMPUTERS, is a naturally occurring polymer.

Pompidou, Georges (1911-74), French teacher and
 banker, a leading Gaullist who worked closely with
 
DE GAULLE from 1944, helping to negotiate an end
 to the Algerian war in 1961, and serving as premier
 1962-1968. He succeeded De Gaulle as president of
 France in 1969, and died in office.

Ponzi, Charles (1877-1949), 1920s investment
 broker, who guaranteed very large returns to small
 investors, and paid them with the funds supplied by
 new investors. After media exposure of his criminal
 record his flow of new investment money stopped,
 and so did his ability to pay previous investors.
 The entire structure collapsed, with large losses
 by small investors and Ponzi's ultimate conviction
 and imprisonment. Such pyramiding arrangements,
 known as "Ponzi schemes," have since become
 illegal.

Popieulskco, Jerzy, Polish priest and 
SOLIDARITY
 sympathizer who was murdered by Polish government
 security agents in 1984. Four security policemen
 were later convicted of his murder; their sentences
 of imprisonment were reduced in 1986 and 1987.

Popper, Karl Raimund (1902- ), Austrian-British
 philosopher of science, linked with the idea that
 much of scientists' work is to find hypotheses
 false rather than true, the strongest theories
 being those that have stood up to the most severe
 tests.

Popular Front, a French left coalition of the
 mid-1930s, in power under the leadership of Premier
 Leon 
BLUM 1936-37. The Popular Front was in the
 same period an alternate name for the 
UNITED

 FRONT strategy of the 
COMINTERN, which from 1935
 sought to build as broad as possible a movement
 against the developing threat of fascism. It did so
 until the 1939 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT created a classic
 "flip-flop," as Communist parties all over the
 world responded to the new Soviet foreign policy.


Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
 (MPLA), the ruling party of the People's Republic
 of Angola, formed in 1956 as a nationalist movement
 against Portuguese rule. The MPLA fought the
 1961-74 
ANGOLAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE in central
 Angola, with increasingly strong Soviet backing,
 which included the arrival of Cuban troops during
 the long civil war that followed Angolan
 independence. Its leader from 1962 through his
 death in 1979 was Augustinho 
NETO. He was
 succeeded in party leadership and the presidency by
 Jose Eduardo dos Santos.

Port Chicago explosion (July 17, 1944), collision
 and explosion of two ammunition ships at Port
 Chicago, near San Francisco; 322 were killed and
 hundreds injured.

Port Huron statement, a declaration of principles,
 adopted by the 
STUDENTS FOR A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY
 at Port Huron, Michigan, in 1962, calling for
 massive changes in the American political system
 and for action to produce those changes. It was
 written by Thomas 
HAYDEN, then a student at the
 University of Michigan.

Portsmouth, Treaty of (1905), agreement ending the
 Russo-
JAPANESE WAR.

Portuguese Armed Forces Movement, the group of
 young officers, including Antonio 
EANES, who on
 April 24, 1974, toppled the Portuguese dictatorship
 in a bloodless coup and then went on to reestablish
 democracy in Portugal and pull Portuguese forces
 out of Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea.

Portuguese Guinea, the former name of
 
GUINEA-BISSAU, which became an independent nation
 on September 10, 1974.

positron, particle of 
ANTIMATTER, first predicted
 in 1928 by Paul 
DIRAC as an antielectron, the
 positively charged counterpart of the negatively
 charged 
ELECTRON, and discovered by Carl Anderson
 in 1932.

Post, Wiley (1899-1935), American aviator who made
 the first round-the-world flight in 1931 with
 Harold Gatty in the Winnie Mae, taking 8 days and
 nearly 16 hours; he then in 1933 made the first
 solo flight circling the globe. A barnstormer and
 stunt parachutist from the 1920s, Post later
 developed a pressure suit for high-altitude
 flights. He was killed with his passenger, comedian
 Will Rogers, when their plane crashed at Point
 Barrow, Alaska, on a flight to Asia.

Potemkin, a battleship of the Russian navy; a
 sailors' mutiny on the ship was a major incident in
 the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION of 1905. The mutiny was
 the subject of the classic Sergei Eisenstein film,
 Potemkin (1925).

Potsdam Conference (July-August 1945), a post-World
 War II Allied conference that organized the
 occupations of Germany and Berlin, set up the
 International Military Tribunal that conducted the
 
NUREMBERG TRIALS, and agreed on the removal and
 resettlement of many millions of German-speakers
 from Eastern Europe to Germany. It also handled a
 miscellany of questions dealing with the government
 and people of Germany and the coming peace
 treaties.

Powell, Adam Clayton, Jr. (1908-72), U.S. minister,
 civil rights activist, and reformer, the first
 Black member of the New York City Council
 (1941-45), and New York Democratic congressman
 (1945-71). In 1967, the House of Representatives
 refused to seat him, charging financial
 irregularities; it did seat him, with penalties,
 after his reelection in a 1968 special election. In
 1969, the Supreme Court found the House's failure
 to seat Powell in 1967 unconstitutional.

Powell, Lewis Franklin, Jr. (1907- ), U.S. lawyer,
 president of the American Bar Association 1964-65,
 the American Association of Trial Lawyers 1969-70,
 and the American Bar Foundation 1969-71. He was
 named to the U.S. Supreme Court by president
 Richard M. 
NIXON in 1971, retiring in 1987. On
 the Court he was generally a
 moderate-to-conservative influence, often operating
 as a swing vote between the more sharply liberal
 and conservative groups in the Court.

power elite, the, a phrase coined by U.S.
 sociologist C. Wright 
MILLS, in his 1956 book of
 that name.

Powers, Francis Gary, U.S. pilot of the
 reconnaissance plane involved in the May 1, 1960
 
U-2 INCIDENT. He was imprisoned in the Soviet
 Union, and exchanged for Soviet spy Rudolph 
ABEL
 in 1962.

POWs/MIAs, Vietnam, U.S. prisoners of war (POWs)
 and those listed as missing in action (MIAs) still
 unaccounted for after the Vietnam War, the subjects
 of a long campaign by their families and others,
 who believed many to still be alive and in
 Vietnamese or Laotian hands many years after the
 war.

Poznan Revolt (June 1956), two days of rioting in
 Poznan, Poland, by workers and intellectuals,
 ultimately suppressed by Soviet troops with more
 than 50 killed, hundreds injured, and an estimated
 l,000 arrests. The riots were part of a wave of
 strikes and demonstrations throughout the country,
 and part of the unrest that swept Eastern Europe in
 the wake of 
KHRUSHCHEV'S SECRET SPEECH.

Prague Spring (January-August 1968), brief period
 in which the Czechoslovak Communist Party, led by
 reformer Alexander 
DUBCEK, initiated a series of
 democratic reforms, including guarantees of
 religious and press freedom. Soviet and
 Soviet-allied troops invaded Czechoslovakia on
 August 20, 1968, took the country, and forced its
 leaders to reverse course.

Preppie murder case (August 26, 1986), the
 media-developed name for the murder of Jennifer
 Levin in New York City's Central Park, for which
 Robert Chambers, Jr., was later tried. He pleaded
 guilty to manslaughter while a deadlocked jury was
 arguing the highly publicized case. Both Levin and
 Chambers were prep school graduates from well-to-do
 families; hence the name of the case.

Primo de Rivera, Miguel (1870-1930), Spanish
 soldier who led the 1923 coup that made him
 dictator of Spain until his resignation in 1930,
 and who led Spanish forces in the 1925 
RIF WAR.


Prince of Wales and Repulse sinkings (December 10,
 1941), early World War II sinkings of the British
 battleship 
PRINCE OF WALES and battlecruiser
 Repulse. Without air reconnaissance, the ships
 unsuccessfully sought the Japanese southeast Asian
 battle fleet, and were themselves found by Japanese
 land-based aircraft off the coast of Malaya. Being
 without air support they were easily sunk.

Prinz, Joachim (1902-88), German rabbi, ordained in
 1925, who publicly opposed the Nazis before and
 after their rise to power, finally leaving Germany
 in 1937 after many arrests. He was president of the
 American Jewish Congress 1958-66 and, with Martin
 Luther 
KING, Jr., an organizer of the 1963 
MARCH

 ON WASHINGTON. An advocate of civil rights and
 other liberal causes, he was often accused of
 communism during the 
MCCARTHY period. He
 sucessfully sued the periodical Common Sense for
 having made the charge.

Profumo Affair (1963), British political scandal
 involving John Profumo, then war minister, and call
 girl Christine Keeler, who was also in touch with a
 Soviet official. Although no national security
 breach was alleged, enormous media attention forced
 Profumo's resignation and further weakened the
 Conservative government led by Harold 
MACMILLAN.


Progressive Party, the name of three short-lived
 20th century U.S. political parties. The first was
 Theodore 
ROOSEVELT'S BULL MOOSE party
 organization of 1912-16. The second was the
 Wisconsin state Progressive party (1934-46), led by
 Senator Robert 
LA FOLLETTE, Jr. The third was the
 Progressive party of Henry A. 
WALLACE, its
 presidential candidate in 1948, who left the party
 when it opposed the 
KOREAN WAR, the party then
 surviving as a minor organization until its
 disappearance in 1952.

Prohibition, period that began with the passage of
 the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution,
 ratified on January 15, 1919, ending the long
 campaign to prohibit alcoholic beverages in the
 United States, led by the Women's Christian
 Temperance Union (founded in 1869) and the
 Anti-Saloon League of America (founded in 1893).
 The Volstead Act, enforcing the new amendment, went
 into effect on January 16, 1920. From then until
 December 5, 1933, when ratification of the
 Twenty-first Amendment once again legalized
 alcohol, the sale or making of beverages containing
 more than 0.5% alcohol was outlawed. The unpopular
 prohibition law was also unenforceable; it created
 a large new illegal alcoholic beverage industry,
 with manufacture, distribution, and sale of such
 beverages wholly and very profitably in the hands
 of criminals, and it spurred the development of
 large criminal gangs and ultimately of a national
 crime syndicate. The careers of such criminals as
 Al 
CAPONE, Charles "Lucky" 
LUCIANO, and Arthur
 "Dutch Schultz" Flegenheimer were fully developed
 during the Prohibition period.

Project Blue Book, U.S. Air Force project (1948-69)
 to gather and evaluate information on sightings of
 
UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECTS.

proton, 
PARTICLE in an atom's 
NUCLEUS, similar
 to a 
NEUTRON but with a positive charge; it was
 first discovered by Ernest 
RUTHERFORD in 1914. By
 the early 1960s, scientists had discovered that the
 proton was not an indivisible particle, but
 included other smaller particles, in general called
 
QUARKS, held together by 
GLUONS.

Provisional Government, the revolutionary
 government that took over control of Russia after
 the 
FEBRUARY REVOLUTION of 1917; it was led by
 Prince Georgy Lvov and later by Alexander
 
KERENSKY. This government continued Russian
 participation in World War II until the 
CENTRAL

 POWERS' success on the Eastern Front and failure
 of supply caused disintegration of the main
 fighting forces of the Russian army. At the same
 time, food shortages, strikes, and demonstrations
 made governing Russia all but impossible. In
 October the extremely weak Provisional Government
 quickly fell to 
BOLSHEVIK assaults. The civil war
 that immediately began was dominated by ex-czarist
 army generals, rather than by deposed Provisional
 Government people.

Provisional Irish Republican Army (Provisionals),
 guerrilla fighting force in Northern Ireland, which
 split off from the 
IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY in 1969,
 and thereafter engaged in a terrorist-oriented
 insurgency against the governments of Northern
 Ireland and Great Britain. It claimed
 responsibility for scores of bombings and
 assassinations in Northern Ireland, Ireland, Great
 Britain, and on the European mainland. The striking
 force of the organization is numbered only in the
 hundreds, but it is supported by substantial
 elements in the Irish Catholic communities of
 Ireland, Great Britain, and North America.

Przemysl, Siege of (1914-15), Russian siege of an
 Austrian fortress in Galicia, which held out for
 almost 7 months before ultimately surrendering its
 garrison of 110,000.

psychedelic drugs, alternate name for
 
HALLUCINOGENIC DRUGS, meaning "mind-manifesting."


psychoanalysis, type of "talking therapy" that has
 the patient associate ideas freely and without
 reservation, in an effort to bypass normal personal
 defenses and reach the root cause of neuroses,
 often thought linked to sexual life and fantasies.
 Developed by Sigmund 
FREUD at the turn of the
 20th century, the psychoanalytic approach involves
 several therapeutic sessions a week for some years.
 It was exported around the world by Freud's
 followers, especially to the United States after
 World War II, though questions as to its worth,
 compared to other therapies, continued to be
 raised.

public opinion polls, surveys of public views on
 issues of the day begun in a scientific way, using
 statistical sampling techniques, in the 1930s. That
 decade saw the founding of Elmo Burns 
ROPER's
 Roper Research Associates (1933) and George
 
GALLUP's American Institute of Public Opinion
 (1935); such organizations were founded also in
 Britain and other parts of the world, especially
 after World War II. Polls were used widely in
 market research and advertising, but their most
 influential use was probably in connection with
 political campaigns. In 1936 scientific polling
 gained a boost in public confidence when several
 key polls, notably those by Roper, Gallup, and
 Archibald Crossley, predicted a 
ROOSEVELT win,
 whereas earlier-style nonscientific polls predicted
 a Landon landslide. Although in the 1948 U.S.
 presidential election most major polls erroneously
 predicted that Thomas E. 
DEWEY would win,
 campaign polling became ever more sophisticated
 over the decades, especially with the use of
 
COMPUTERS. In the 1960 presidential campaign,
 John F. 
KENNEDY employed pollster Louis 
HARRIS
 as a personal consultant, and soon many candidates
 had their own surveying organizations. 
TELEVISION
 networks used exit polls-surveys of people leaving
 voter booths-to predict election results even
 before the votes were counted. By the 1980s,
 surveying organizations were doing daily "tracking
 polls" to chart shifts of public opinion.

Public Works Administration (PWA), a U.S. 
NEW

 DEAL agency created during the first 
HUNDRED

 DAYS of the 
ROOSEVELT administration and
 administered by Harold 
ICKES; it supplied grants
 and loans to a wide variety of building projects,
 such as dams, bridges, housing projects, schools,
 and highways. The agency made little impact during
 the early days of the Roosevelt era, largely
 because of the caution of Harold Ickes; in
 aggregate, however, PWA funding was important in
 the creation of many major public works projects.


PUEBLO Incident (1968), the seizure of the U.S.S.
 Pueblo and its 83-man crew by North Korean forces
 in the Sea of Japan. After 11 months of
 negotiations, 82 surviving crew members were
 released.

Pujo Committee (1912), special U.S. congressional
 committee, chaired by Arsene Pujo, that studied and
 revealed the operations of the "money trust," a
 group of banks exerting substantial control of many
 major financial and business institutions, through
 a system of financial controls and interlocking
 directorates. The committee gained a great deal of
 public attention through the reluctant testimony of
 financier J. Pierpont 
MORGAN; its work made a
 considerable contribution to the development of
 bank regulation and the 
FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM.


pulsar, rapidly rotating 
NEUTRON star that emits
 regular bursts or pulses of 
RADIATION, the
 remnant of a 
SUPERNOVA in a late stage of
 
STELLAR EVOLUTION. J. Robert 
OPPENHEIMER and
 George Volkoff predicted the existence of pulsars
 in 1938; the first one was discovered and named by
 Jocelyn Bell in 1967 (for which her supervisor,
 Anthony Hewish, but not Bell, received the 1974
 Nobel Prize for Physics).

Pumpkin Papers, a high-security file of State
 Department documents that figured prominently in
 the 1949 and 1950 trials of Alger 
HISS, in the
 form of rolls of microfilm that Whittaker
 
CHAMBERS claimed had been given him by Hiss in
 1937 and 1938 and that he had subsequently hidden
 in a hollow pumpkin on his farm in Maryland. Hiss
 denied the charge, was indicted for perjury, and
 was released after a hung jury could not agree on a
 verdict; he was convicted of perjury in his second
 trial.

Pure Food and Drug Laws, a group of U.S. laws
 greatly expanding the power of federal regulatory
 agencies over food and many other commodities; the
 Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), the Meat Inspection
 Act (1906), and the Pure Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
 Act (1908). The reforms embodied in these laws were
 strongly supported by President Theodore
 
ROOSEVELT, and passage was greatly assisted by
 such exposes as Upton 
SINCLAIR's novel The Jungle
 which attacked the meatpacking industry, and also
 by pressure from inside the Department of
 Agriculture, especially Harvey Washington 
WILEY's
 analysis of widespread food additives and
 adulteratives. Other laws followed, most notably
 the 1938 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, setting up
 the 
FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION (FDA).

purge trials, an alternate name for the 
MOSCOW

 TRIALS of the 1930s.

P'u Yi, Henry, the name later taken by 
HSUAN
 T'ung, who as a child was the last Manchu emperor
 of China; he was the subject of the 1987 film, The
 Last Emperor.

PWA, the initials of the 
PUBLIC WORKS

 ADMINISTRATION, a 
NEW DEAL U.S. federal agency
 of the 1930s.

Pyeshkov, Aleksei Maximovich the given name of
 author Maxim 
GORKY.

Ra II, reed boat, made in early Egyptian style,
 sailed across the Atlantic in 1969-70  by Norwegian
 explorer Thor 
HEYERDAHL.

Rabi, Isidor Isaac, (1898- ) Austrian-born,
 U.S.-educated physicist, who in the 1930s developed
 ways to accurately measure magnetism in atoms and
 molecules, work that won him the 1944 Nobel Prize
 for Physics. During World War II he worked on
 
RADAR and on the 
ATOMIC BOMB, later succeeding
 J. Robert 
OPPENHEIMER as chairman of the 
ATOMIC

 ENERGY COMMISSION's General Advisory Committee
 (1952-56).

Rabin, Yitzhak (1922- ), Israeli officer who saw
 service during the 
ISRAELI WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

 (FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR) in 1948 and rose to
 become army chief of staff (1964-68). He was
 ambassador to the United States (1968-73), briefly
 labor minister in 1974, and prime minister
 (1974-77). He became defense minister in the 1984
 coalition government, taking direct responsibility
 for Israeli army operations against the Palestinian
 populations of the 
WEST BANK and Gaza Strip
 during the 
INTIFADA of the late 1980s.

radar (
RAdio 
Detecting 
And 
Ranging), method
 of spotting and locating objects using reflection
 of 
RADIO waves, first patented by German engineer
 Christian Hulsmeyer in 1904, based  on earlier
 work, but not really developed until the 1930s.
 Researchers followed independent lines in America
 and several European countries, though Scottish
 physicist Robert Alexander Watson-Watt is often
 credited with the first practical radar for
 detecting aircraft in 1935. In World War II,
 Britain made some key technical breakthroughs,
 including the development of a
 
MICROWAVE-producing tube called a magnetron and a
 klystron tube that made the radar beam more
 precise, aiding the RAF significantly in the
 
BATTLE OF BRITAIN, especially because radar
 development was given low priority in Germany. In
 1963, during the 
COLD WAR, the United States set
 up an extensive "early warning" radar system in
 Greenland, Britain, and Alaska for detecting
 
INTERCONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILES (ICBMs).
 Radar also appeared in civilian life, especially
 used by air traffic controllers, weather
 forecasters, and police.

Radek, Karl Bernhardovich (Karl Sobelsohn;
 1885-1939), Russian Social Democrat who fought in
 Poland during the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905,
 became a 
BOLSHEVIK leader in exile, and returned
 to Russia with 
LENIN in 1917. He became a leader
 of the 
COMINTERN in the early 1920s but was
 expelled from his party as a Trotskyist in 1927,
 returning in 1930 to become an editor of Izvestia.
 He was imprisoned during the 
MOSCOW TRIALS of
 1937 and died in prison 2 years later. He was
 posthumously rehabilitated during the 
GORBACHEV
 era.

radiation, energy being transmitted in apparently
 different forms, first understood as belonging to
 one continuous electromagnetic spectrum only in
 1905, following 
EINSTEIN's theory of
 
RELATIVITY. Along the spectrum, running from the
 highest to the lowest frequency, are found 
RADIO
 waves, 
MICROWAVES, INFRARED rays, light (the very
 narrow visible spectrum from red to violet),
 
ULTRAVIOLET rays, 
X-RAYS, and 
GAMMA rays.
 Until 1911 scientists assumed that all radiation
 came from the Earth; then Victor Hess, making
 measurements during balloon flights, recognized the
 existence of 
COSMIC RAYS. Radiation was also
 assumed to be wavelike until the 1923-24 work of
 Arthur Holly 
COMPTON and Louis 
DE BROGLIE
 showed that in some respects it behaved like
 particles, giving rise to the idea of
 
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY. Scientists in the 20th
 century have developed a wide range of applications
 for the various types of radiation, as in 
RADIO

 ASTRONOMY and medicine. Much popular discussion of
 radiation has focused on the danger of the
 invisible emissions, as from X-rays and microwaves.


radio, transmission and detection of radio
 waves-that is, 
RADIATION from the radio portion
 of the electromagnetic spectrum-carrying
 informational signals through space; a form of
 telecommunication overlapping many areas, including
 
TELEVISION, RADAR, RADIO ASTRONOMY, and
 telephones. Radio grew out of 19th-century work in
 
WIRELESS telegraphy, especially by Guglielmo
 
MARCONI, who founded the first commercial
 wireless telegraphy service in 1898, providing
 Lloyd's of London with information about incoming
 ships. In December 1900, American electrical
 engineer Reginald Aubrey Fessenden transmitted the
 human voice for the first time, to a receiver a
 mile away. Then, in 1901, Marconi tapped out the
 letter 
S in Morse code, sending the first
 trans-Atlantic signal from St. John's,
 Newfoundland, to a waiting receiver in Poldhu,
 Cornwall, confounding those who thought radio
 signals could be sent no farther than 100-200
 miles. By 1902 he had sent a signal 700 miles
 during the day and 2,000 miles at night; the
 difference was later found to be in the nature of
 the 
IONOSPHERE, an atmospheric layer that
 reflects radio waves. The first known radio program
 in the United States was broadcast on Christmas Eve
 1906, transmitted by Fessenden from Brant Rock,
 Massachusetts; his audience was mostly wireless
 operators on nearby ships and a few amateurs on
 land. The following year he conducted the first
 two-way radio-telephone transmission between Brant
 Rock and Scotland. By 1910 wireless telegraph
 messages were commonly passed between land and
 ships, and that year they were transmitted for the
 first time between land and an 
AIRPLANE. Within 8
 years the first message was transmitted  from
 England to Australia. Into the 1920s some early
 receivers used crystal detectors, introduced in
 1901 by Karl Braun, so radios were sometimes called
 crystal sets; though precursors of modern
 
TRANSISTORS, they were soon replaced by 
ELECTRON

 TUBES. These could generate, detect, and amplify
 signals, allowing radio development to boom.
 
ELECTRONICS inventor Lee 
DE FOREST gained great
 publicity for fledgling radio by broadcasting
 Enrico Caruso singing live at the Metropolitan
 Opera in 1910, and offering the first radio news
 report in 1916. Bell Telephone engineers, working
 with De Forest's electron tubes, made the first
 transoceanic voice transmissions in 1915. The
 following year David 
SARNOFF of the American
 Marconi company suggested building stations for
 transmitting speech and music, to be received by
 "radio music boxes" in the home. Pioneer radio
 operators began regular broadcasts as early as 1919
 in The Hague and in 1920 in Montreal. The first
 regular radio station in the United States was KDKA
 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which started
 broadcasting on November 2, 1920, with the
 Harding-Cox presidential election returns. By July
 2, 1921, a radio blow-by-blow account of the
 Dempsey-Carpentier fight had  an audience of
 approximately 300,000 people; the first paid
 commercial was broadcast a year later. In 1926 the
 National Broadcasting Company (NBC) formed the
 first permanent network of radio stations. In 1912
 and again in  1927, the U.S. Congress passed radio
 acts to regulate the industry, in 1934 setting up
 the 
FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION (FCC),
 which assigned radio wavelengths to stations. The
 British began to license both transmitters and
 receivers in 1922, and 5 years later formed a
 public broadcast authority, the 
BRITISH

 BROADCASTING CORPORATION (BBC), funded by
 licensing fees. By the end of the 1920s radio
 service had spread throughout Europe and the
 British Commonwealth. A series of international
 agreements, effected from 1926, extended gradually
 around the world and allotted the wavelengths on
 which each country's stations could broadcast.
 Early radio stations all varied their power output
 to convey sound or signal; that is, they used
 amplitude modulation (AM). But in 1935 Edwin
 Armstrong developed a signal varied with frequency
 modulation (FM), the resulting sound being steadier
 and less subject to interference. Today both types
 of stations exist side by side. Being a powerful
 propaganda tool, radio is kept under strict state
 control in some countries, but it recognizes no
 borders. The BBC, widely known for its
 international broadcasting of high-quality
 programming, started its foreign-language
 broadcasts in 1938. But from the 1920s many other
 countries also have transmitted programs designed
 for people outside their borders-sometimes openly
 propagandistic. As the Soviet Union has long beamed
 programs in English to the people of North America,
 so the U.S. 
VOICE OF AMERICA and 
RADIO FREE

 EUROPE have transmitted programs in various
 languages to people behind the 
IRON CURTAIN.
 Sometimes governments have attempted to "jam," or
 scramble, signals from outside their borders;
 listening to foreign radio broadcasts could
 sometimes even lead to imprisonment. In World War
 II radio provided vital means of communications,
 often coded, with resistance fighters behind enemy
 lines; ever since, intelligence services have
 listened avidly to other countries' radio
 communications for information about their
 intentions. Though challenged in the popular
 affection by both motion pictures and 
TELEVISION,
 radio remains a powerful medium; immediacy and
 interaction are two of its main attractions.
 All-news stations, which arrived on the U.S. scene
 in 1975, and call-in shows take advantage of both
 of these attractions. From the 1950s, when
 transistors began to replace 
VACUUM TUBES, radios
 also became smaller, more portable, and ubiquitous.
 Listeners tuning in on shortwave bands can hear
 programming from thousands of miles away,
 especially at night, and "ham radio" operators are
 able to talk with fellow amateurs from all over the
 world.

radioactivity, property of an atom spontaneously
 decaying, or disintegrating, while giving off
 
RADIATION and 
PARTICLES; the natural products
 of radioactivity are gamma rays, a type of
 low-frequency radiation; alpha particles, the
 nuclei of helium atoms without the 
ELECTRONS; and
 beta particles, speeded-up electrons. Radioactivity
 was first discovered in 1896 by Antoine-Henri
 Becquerel, and explored in the following decades by
 Marie Sklodowska 
CURIE and Pierre Curie. In 1900
 French physicist Paul Villard discovered gamma
 rays, which Ernest 
RUTHERFORD quickly realized
 were similar to 
X-RAYS but of shorter
 wavelengths; Rutherford also discovered and named
 both alpha and beta particles in the early 1900s.
 Rutherford and Frederick 
SODDY first understood
 in 1902-1903 that radioactive emissions were
 actually the result of an unstable atom decaying
 into another more stable one. The length of time it
 takes for half of a given amount of a radioactive
 element to decay into another is called its
 
HALF-LIFE. Radioactivity can occur naturally, as
 in 
URANIUM, or it can be artificially induced, as
 first done by Rutherford in 1919. Additional types
 of particles are produced with artificially induced
 radioactivity, as during 
NUCLEAR FISSION or
 bombardment in an 
ACCELERATOR, a process much
 studied by modern particle physicists. Radioactive
 
ISOTOPES, or radioisotopes, are widely used in
 medicine, as in the treatment of cancer or as
 tracers in the body to aid diagnosis.

radio astronomy, observation of objects in the
 universe, not by optical means but by analysis of
 the 
RADIO waves they emit, the waves themselves
 being first discovered in 1931 by Bell Labs radio
 engineer Karl Guthe 
JANSKY. By 1937 U.S.
 astronomer Grote Reber had built the first radio
 telescope, a dish-like affair 31 feet across;
 others followed, and by the 1980s a single 
VERY

 LARGE ARRAY (VLA) radio telescope, with many
 dishes arranged to work together, had the
 observational capacity of a 17-mile-wide radio
 "dish," focusing radio waves and collecting them
 for analysis by computer. Radio astronomers showed
 that the universe contained far more objects than
 those previously seen and, working with optical
 telescope astronomers, they began to identify new
 types of objects in the sky, such as 
QUASARS;
 they also discovered background cosmic 
RADIATION,
 supporting the 
BIG BANG THEORY of the universe's
 origin. Since World War II, astronomers also have
 used various devices to "observe" the universe by
 collecting and analyzing other types of radiation,
 such as 
INFRARED RAYS. The American Orbiting
 Astronomical Observatory is a series of
 
SATELLITES used to map the entire electromagnetic
 spectrum of the universe from beyond the distortion
 of the Earth's atmosphere.

radiocarbon dating, method of dating the remains of
 ancient life by measuring how much of the
 radioactive 
ISOTOPE carbon 14 it contains;
 knowing carbon 14's very long 
HALF-LIFE of 5,730
 years, and its proportion in living tissue,
 scientists can tell how long ago remains were
 alive. Use of the carbon 14 dating technique,
 developed in 1946 by American chemist Willard Frank
 
LIBBY and refined by others over the decades,
 transformed archeology, anthropology, and
 paleontology in general, showing that many
 settlements were far older than previously thought.


Radio Free Europe, broadcast service funded by the
 U.S. government and aimed at the people of Eastern
 Europe and the Soviet Union from 1952; during the
 
COLD WAR,  it was often staffed by political
 refugees  and emigrants from behind the 
IRON

 CURTAIN.

radioisotopes, radioactive form of 
ISOTOPE widely
 used for medical analysis and treatment; often
 artificially created for the purpose, following
 Irene 
JOLIOT-CURIE and Frederic 
JOLIOT-CURIE'S
 1934 discovery of artificially induced
 
RADIOACTIVITY. Radioactive iodine, for example,
 allows doctors to analyze the functioning of the
 thyroid gland and also can be used to destroy some
 tissue in cancerous or overactive thyroid glands.
 In the field of nuclear medicine, certain imaging
 procedures also require that the patient be given
 radioisotopes before a scan.

radon, odorless, colorless, radioactive gas,
 existing in several forms and having a short
 
HALF-LIFE; it was discovered in 1900 by German
 physicist Friedrich Ernst Dorn. Released from rocks
 and springwater in the earth, radon is an unseen
 source of cancer-causing 
RADIATION. With more
 efficient insulation, especially after the 
OIL

 EMBARGO of the 1970s, it came to be trapped in
 buildings, causing the Environmental Protection
 Agency to suggest in 1988 that all homes and
 lower-floor apartments should be checked for radon
 levels.

Raeder, Erich (1876-1960), German naval officer who
 saw service during World War I, becoming
 commander-in-chief and then grand admiral of the
 German navy during the interwar period; he was
 relieved of command by Adolf 
HITLER in 1943.
 Sentenced to life imprisonment at the 
NUREMBERG
 war crimes trials, his sentence was later commuted.


Rahman, Mujibur (Sheikh Mujibur; 1920-75), the
 first president of Bangladesh; he was a 
MOSLEM

 LEAGUE activist until 1947 and in 1948 one of the
 founders of the Awami League, which became the main
 force in the campaign for an independent
 Bangladesh, then East Pakistan. In 1970 he and his
 party won an overwhelming electoral victory in East
 Pakistan, and enough votes in West Pakistan to have
 made him president. But the military government of
 Pakistan refused to convene the new national
 assembly, arresting him and triggering the
 
BANGLADESH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE and the
 
INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR OF 1971, which led to the
 establishment of an independent Bangladesh.
 Released from imprisonment, he became first
 president of Bangladesh in December 1971. As
 president, Rahman attempted to develop a moderately
 socialist economy in a very poor country against a
 backdrop of recurrent natural disasters, epidemic
 disease, and continuing civil unrest. He was
 assassinated, along with his wife and five
 children, on August 15, 1975, during an attempted
 army coup.

Rainbow Warrior incident (July 1985), the sinking
 by French agents of the ship Rainbow Warrior,
 operated by the Greenpeace anti-nuclear-testing
 group who were in Auckland Harbor preparing an
 attempted disruption of French South Pacific
 nuclear weapons tests. The New Zealand government
 arrested two French agents and convicted them of
 manslaughter. Both were later freed but only after
 a bitter dispute between France and New Zealand was
 mediated by 
UNITED NATIONS secretary general
 Javier 
PEREZ DE CUELLAR.The French government
 paid $7 million in compensation.

Rajk, Laszlo (1909-49), Hungarian Communist who
 fought in the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR, was a resistance
 leader during World War II, served as interior
 minister 1946-48, and became foreign minister in
 1948. In 1949 he was charged with treason; he
 confessed while undergoing a show trial and was
 executed. The charges were wholly false; in 1956 he
 was posthumously rehabilitated by 
MATYAS RAKOSI,
 whose government had executed him.

Rakosi, Matyas (1892-1971), Hungarian Communist
 leader, who fled to the Soviet Union after the
 defeat of the 
BELA KUN government in 1919,
 returned in 1925, and was imprisoned from 1925 to
 1940, when his release was negotiated. In 1945 he
 became head of the Hungarian Communist Party, which
 seized full power in 1947, installing him as head
 of the Hungarian government. He was replaced by
 more liberal Imre 
NAGY in 1953, returned to power
 in 1955, and in 1956 unsuccessfully resisted the
 powerful reformist pressures generated by the
 February 
KHRUSHCHEV SECRET SPEECH. He resigned in
 July 1956, and returned once more to the Soviet
 Union.

Ramsay, Bertram Home (1883-1945), British naval
 officer, who came out of retirement to serve in
 World War II. He planned the successful British
 evacuation of 
DUNKIRK in 1940, was deputy fleet
 commander during the 1942 North African invasion,
 and commanded all naval forces in the 
NORMANDY
 invasion of 1944. He died in an aircraft accident
 in France, in January 1945.

Ramstein air show disaster (August 28, 1988), 49
 people were killed and 350 injured, when three
 Italian precision-flying-team jets crashed into a
 crowd of 300,000 spectators at the annual U.S.
 Ramstein Air Base air show near Frankfurt, West
 Germany. Acceding to angry West German public
 opinion, which had previously built pressure to ban
 such shows as dangerous, the government then
 prohibited them until further notice, over U.S.
 protests.

Randolph, Asa Philip (1889-1979), U.S. labor
 organizer and civil rights activist, who in 1925
 founded the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and
 was its president from 1925 to 1968. During World
 War I he worked to organize Blacks into unions and
 founded The Messenger, a magazine devoted to that
 work. During World War II he successfully lobbied
 for establishment of the 
FAIR EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES

 COMMISSION (FEPC) after threatening to organize a
 march on Washington. In 1955, he became a
 vice-president of the AFL-CIO, and in 1963 was
 chief organizer of the 
MARCH ON WASHINGTON at
 which Martin Luther 
KING, Jr. delivered his 
I

 HAVE A DREAM speech.

Ranger, series of U.S. unmanned spacecraft
 exploring the 
MOON in the 1960s, preparatory to
 the 
APOLLO flights, transmitting television
 pictures of the Moon before making a "hard," or
 crash, landing onto it.

Rank, Otto (Otto Rosenfeld; 1884-1937), Austrian
 psychoanalyst and early Freud protege, who split
 with his mentor in 1924, on publication of his book
 The Trauma of Birth. Later in Paris and then New
 York, Rank developed a therapy aimed at reliving
 the birth trauma.

Rankin, Jeannette (1880-1973), U.S. social worker,
 woman suffrage activist, and a Montana Republican
 congresswoman (1917-19, 1941-43), in 1917 becoming
 the first woman to serve in either house of
 Congress. A lifelong antiwar activist, she opposed
 U.S. entry into World War I. In 1941 she was the
 only member of Congress to vote against the
 declaration of war on Japan after the attack on
 
PEARL HARBOR; she left Congress at the end of her
 term. She was also active in opposition to the
 
VIETNAM WAR.

Rapallo, Soviet-German Treaty of (April 16, 1922),
 a treaty by which Germany became the first major
 country to recognize the Soviet Union. All war
 debts or reparations between the two countries were
 disclaimed, laying the basis for favorable trade
 relations.

Rapallo, Yugoslav-Italian Treaty of (November 12,
 1920), a treaty that temporarily settled the status
 of disputed Fiume, making it a free city. Fiume was
 taken by Italy in 1924, and became part of
 Yugoslavia after World War II.

Rape of Nanking (December 13, 1937), the fall of
 Nanking to Japanese troops during the
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR, so described throughout the
 world because of the extremely brutal behavior of
 the Japanese troops that took the city.

Rasmussen, Knud Johan Victor (1879-1933), Danish
 explorer and ethnologist, Greenland-born and part
 Eskimo, who from 1902 led many expeditions to map
 remote areas of Greenland and study Eskimo culture;
 from 1910 he worked from 
THULE, a base he founded
 in northern Greenland. He also made wider Arctic
 explorations; he was the first to travel the route
 of the 
NORTHWEST PASSAGE by dogsled (1921-24)
 from Greenland across to Point Barrow, Alaska,
 visiting the many Eskimo tribes along the way.

Rasputin (Gregory Yefimovich Novykh), Russian monk
 and faith healer who, from 1905, strongly
 influenced Czarina Alexandra, wife of 
NICHOLAS
 II, and whose rough and highly sexual conduct
 scandalized Russian court and related circles of
 the time. The czarina's influence over Russian
 non-military affairs peaked during World War I, and
 with it Rasputin's influence. He was assassinated
 by three prominent Russian conservatives on
 December 16, 1916.

Rathenau, Walter (1867-1922), German industrialist
 who helped organize Germany's war effort during
 World War I, became foreign minister of the Weimar
 Republic, and established normal relations with the
 Soviet Union with the 1922 Treaty of 
RAPALLO. He
 was attacked by the German far right as a Communist
 sympathizer and also as a Jew, and was assassinated
 by rightists on June 24, 1922.

Rather, Dan (1931- ), U.S. journalist and
 broadcaster, who as a CBS correspondent, reported
 the assassination of John F. 
KENNEDY from Dallas,
 and went on to cover many of the main stories of
 the 1960s and 1970s. He became a major figure
 during his tenure as CBS White House correspondent
 (1966-74), as he sharply questioned and helped
 expose Richard M. 
NIXON'S role in the 
WATERGATE
 scandal. He was named CBS television news anchor in
 1981, succeeding Walter 
CRONKITE.

Rava Ruska, Battle of (September 3-11, 1914), World
 War I battle, in which Austrian forces invading
 Russian Poland were decisively defeated by the
 Russians after initial successes, and retreated 100
 miles to the Carpathian Mountains. At the end of
 this campaign the Russians held most of Galicia.

Ray, James Earl (1928- ), assassin of Martin Luther
 
KING, Jr., in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4,
 1968. Ray was captured in London on June 8, 1968,
 pleaded guilty to the murder, and received a
 99-year jail term.

Rayburn, Samuel Taliaferro (1882-1961), U.S.
 lawyer, a long-time Texas Democratic member of the
 House of Representatives (1913-61), and Speaker of
 the House for a total of 17 years, during the
 administrations of presidents 
ROOSEVELT, TRUMAN,

 EISENHOWER, and 
KENNEDY. He played a major role
 in the development and passage of much of the 
NEW

 DEAL legislation of the 1930s.

Reagan, Ronald Wilson (1911- ), U.S. sportscaster,
 actor, president of the Screen Actors Guild,
 governor of California, and 40th president of the
 United States (1981-89). He was a popular Hollywood
 actor from the late 1930s through the 1950s,
 becoming active in film industry matters and
 serving as president of the Screen Actors Guild
 1947-52. During that period he began the swing from
 the liberal Democrat  he had been to the
 conservative Republican he became. He became active
 in Republican party affairs in 1964 and was
 governor of California from 1967 to 1975. He
 unsuccessfully sought the Repubican presidential
 nomination in 1968 and 1976, before winning it and
 then the presidency in 1980, defeating incumbent
 Jimmy 
CARTER. He was wounded in John 
HINCKLEY'S
 assassination attempt of March 30, 1981, but
 completely recovered. He won a landslide
 second-term victory in 1984, defeating Democrat
 Walter 
MONDALE in all but Minnesota and the
 District of Columbia. As president he pursued a
 conservative agenda domestically, sharply cutting
 social welfare expenditures and reducing federal
 regulation in several areas. At the same time he
 greatly increased military expenditures and cut
 taxes, with resulting net budget deficits that by
 1988 had created a national debt approaching $2
 trillion. In foreign affairs his main preoccupation
 was with the Soviet-American cold war; a staunch
 anti-Communist from Screen Actors Guild days, he
 began his administration by publicly calling the
 Soviet Union an "evil empire." He ended it with the
 INF 
TREATY and a series of increasingly cordial
 and productive meetings with Soviet premier Mikhail
 
GORBACHEV. These resulted in Soviet withdrawal of
 troops from the 
AFGHANISTAN CIVIL WAR,
 negotiation toward settlement of many regional
 conflicts, and moderation-perhaps even the
 ending-of the cold war. His other foreign policy
 initiatives met with mixed success: continuing
 involvement in the 
NICARAGUAN and 
SALVADOREAN
 civil wars; the successful 1983 invasion of
 Grenada; the peacekeeping effort in Lebanon, which
 ended with the 1983 terrorist attack on U.S.
 marines in Beirut; the 
STAR WARS initiative; the
 repeated attacks on Libya; and the disastrous
 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR.

Reagan-Gorbachev summits, four superpower meetings,
 at 
GENEVA (1985), 
REYKJAVIK (1986),
 
WASHINGTON (1987), and 
MOSCOW (1988),
 eventuating in the INF 
TREATY, a substantial
 reduction in regional conflicts all over the world,
 and a major change in American-Soviet relations.

recombinant DNA, short segments of DNA that have
 been "cut and pasted"-that is, separated and
 spliced together in new ways-as part of 
GENETIC

 ENGINEERING. Recombinant DNA was almost a scare
 word to the public in the mid-1970s, because of
 concern that artificially created life forms might
 escape from the laboratory and run amok. The result
 was stringent government controls on working with
 recombinant DNA, somewhat relaxed after 1980.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), a U.S.
 federal lending agency created in January 1932, in
 a 
HOOVER administration attempt to meet the
 problems of the 
GREAT DEPRESSION by making
 sizable federal loans available to large business
 organizations. In July 1932 its purposes were
 broadened to include a wider range of
 Depression-related objectives. During the first
 
HUNDRED DAYS of the 
ROOSEVELT administration,
 it became a major 
NEW DEAL instrument for direct
 loans to family farms and small businesses, as well
 as a provider of a much wider variety of loans to
 and investments in larger businesses.

Recruit stock scandal, a Japanese financial
 corruption scandal that broke in July 1988,
 involving many high government officials and
 business leaders. The Recruit Cosmos real estate
 company sold insider stock to many high government
 officials, business leaders, and journalists before
 taking the company public. The company also made
 direct payments to government officials, some of
 them in the form of campaign contributions. The
 stock transactions were apparently legal under
 Japanese law but were seen as unethical. They
 generated a major scandal and caused the
 resignations of the finance, economics, and justice
 ministers, some business leaders, and several key
 aides to both Prime Minister Noboru 
TAKESHITA and
 his predecessor, Yasuhiro 
NAKASONE. As the
 scandal widened and deepened, it also directly
 involved Takeshita, forcing his April 24, 1989,
 announcemnt that he would resign.

Red Army Faction, the formal name of the
 
BAADER-MEINHOF GROUP and also the name of the
 terrorist organization that succeeded the group
 after the 1972 captures of Andreas Baader, Ulrike
 Meinhof, and other original members of the group.


Red Baron, popular name for Manfred von
 
RICHTHOFEN, the leading German fighter pilot of
 World War I.

Red Brigades, an Italian left terrorist
 organization that committed many assassinations in
 the 1970s and 1980s, including the March 1978
 assassination of former Italian prime minister Aldo
 Moro. It is loosely affiliated with several similar
 organizations, including the Union of Fighting
 Communists, which committed several assasssinations
 in the late 1980s.

Red Front, the German Communist party
 street-fighting organization during the Weimar
 Republic period; smashed by the Nazis, it then went
 underground.

Red Guards (Chinese), roving groups of "levelers"
 formed by millions of young people all over China
 during 1966-67, aiming to purge Chinese life of all
 unorthodox "bourgeois" tendencies in response to
 
MAO ZEDONG's call during the 
CULTURAL

 REVOLUTION. In practice this caused an enormous
 upheaval throughout the country, with tremendous
 human, economic, cultural, and educational damage,
 including the destruction of many of China's most
 treasured cultural artifacts and art treasures.

Red Guards (Soviet), the workers' militia developed
 by the 
SOVIETS during the 
PROVISIONAL

 GOVERNMENT period of 1917. The Red Guards of the
 
PETROGRAD SOVIET, along with regular military
 units, took the 
WINTER PALACE and the city,
 during the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION of 1917. Other Red
 Guard units did much the same in their areas of
 operation throughout Russia; together they formed
 much of the basis for the new Red Army that fought
 the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR.

Red Orchestra (Rote Kapelle), large-scale Soviet
 intelligence network successfully functioning
 throughout Germany and occupied Europe during the
 early years of World War II.

Red Scare (1919-20), a time of antiradical hysteria
 in the United States; also known as the period of
 the 
PALMER RAIDS.

red shift, the apparent movement of starlight
 toward the red-or longer-wavelength-end of the
 electromagnetic spectrum. It was first observed by
 U.S. astronomer Vesto Melvin Slipher in 1920, an
 early confirmation of Albert 
EINSTEIN's general
 theory of 
RELATIVITY. A kind of Doppler effect,
 shown by objects swiftly receding from one another,
 the red shift tends to support the 
BIG BANG
 
THEORY and is of special interest in the study of
 galaxies and 
QUASARS.

Red Terror, the name given by the 
BOLSHEVIKS to
 the tactics used to destroy opposition after the
 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION of 1917; it involved the use
 of such extralegal means as mass arrests and
 summary executions.

Reeb, James, Boston Unitarian minister and civil
 rights activist beaten by racists in Selma,
 Alabama, on March 9, 1965, while in the city to
 participate in the 
SELMA MARCHES. He died on
 March 11. In December 1965, three whites were
 acquitted of his murder.

Reed, Frank, one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, director of the Lebanese International
 School, who was kidnapped on September 9, 1986.

Reed, John Silas (1887-1920), U.S. journalist and
 socialist who reported on American labor matters,
 the 
MEXICAN REVOLUTION, World War I, and the
 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION. A 
BOLSHEVIK partisan, his
 best-known work was a sympathetic report on the
 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION, Ten Days That Shook the
 World. He became a leader of the Communist Labor
 Party of the United States in 1919, was indicted
 for sedition, and fled to the Soviet Union, where
 he died in 1920. Reed was the protagonist of Warren
 Beatty's 1981 film, Reds.

Reed, Walter (1851-1902), U.S. physician and
 bacteriologist, who identified the mosquito as the
 carrier of 
YELLOW FEVER. In the wake of the
 Spanish-American War, Reed headed a commission to
 Havana, Cuba, to explore the causes of yellow
 fever, a dangerous task that had taken the lives of
 several co-workers. Once Reed had identified the
 mosquito carrier in 1900, William 
GORGAS oversaw
 a mosquito-eradication campaign there and in
 
PANAMA, allowing the canal to be built. The U.S.
 Army hospital at Washington, D.C., was named in
 Reed's honor.

Regan, Donald Thomas (1918- ), U.S. stockbroker,
 head of Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner, and Beane
 until becoming secretary of the treasury in 1981.
 In 1985 he swapped positions with James 
BAKER,
 becoming chief of staff to President Ronald
 
REAGAN. In February 1987 he was dismissed from
 that post, after a highly publicized set of
 disagreements with Nancy Reagan.

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
 (1978), a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision on
 educational quota systems, better known as the


 BAKKE case.

Rehnquist, William Hubbs (1924- ), U.S. lawyer and
 assistant federal attorney general heading the
 Office of Legal Counsel, 1969-71, who strongly
 defended 
NIXON administration policies, including
 military surveillance of anti-
VIETNAM WAR
 activists. Nixon appointed him an associate justice
 of the Supreme Court in 1971; he was confirmed by
 the Senate in a 68-26 vote, after a nomination
 fight in which liberals accused him of being a
 doctrinaire radical right conservative. He was
 appointed chief justice by President Ronald
 
REAGAN in 1986 and confirmed 65-33, again after a
 nomination fight. A generally extremely
 conservative associate justice, he seemed to move
 to a somewhat more conciliatory position within the
 court in his early years as chief justice.

Reich, Wilhelm (1897-1957), Austrian-American
 psychiatrist who believed that the orgasm-for him,
 the discharge of sexual energy, or "orgone"-was
 vital to personal health. Associated with Sigmund
 
FREUD in the 1920s, and with sexual freedom
 movements in Germany in the early 1930s, Reich
 tried to harmonize 
COMMUNISM and
 
PSYCHOANALYSIS, an effort that barred him from
 both movements. Arriving in the United States in
 1939, he founded the Orgone Institute and later
 developed the orgone box, which he claimed restored
 sexual energy and cured diseases such as 
CANCER.
 The orgone box, branded a fraudulent therapy by the
 
FDA, brought Reich a 2-year jail term, during
 which he died.

Reichenau, Walther von (1884-1942), German officer
 and early Nazi, who rose to the rank of field
 marshal in 1940. He commanded substantial German
 forces during the Austrian, Polish, French, and
 Soviet invasions, dying of natural causes in 1942.


Reichstag Fire (February 27, 1933), a key Nazi
 strategem on the road to power. The Nazis, still a
 minority party, arranged to burn the Reichstag, the
 
WEIMAR REPUBLIC seat of government, and blame it
 on Communists. Using the resultant anti-Communist
 hysteria, 
HITLER took power the next day,
 suspending all constitutional protections; a month
 later, March 23, 1933, the Reichstag voted itself
 out of existence, recognizing the fact of the Nazi
 dictatorship.

Reilly, William Kane (1940- ), U.S. lawyer and
 leading conservationist, president of the
 Conservation Fund from 1973 and of the World
 Wildlife Fund from 1985; on December 22, 1988, was
 named head of the Environmental Protection Agency
 (EPA) by president George 
BUSH.

Reith, John Charles Walsham (1889-1971), British
 executive who directed the 
BRITISH BROADCASTING

 COMPANY (BBC) in its formative years, 1922-38. He
 was responsible for maintaining the quasi-public
 authority's independence and for setting standards
 of excellence in programming that made the BBC's
 
RADIO and, from 1936, 
TELEVISION broadcasts
 famed throughout the world.

relativity, in physics, a revolutionary view of the
 universe, put forth by Albert 
EINSTEIN in 1905
 and more widely in 1915, positing that all
 measurement of motion, space, and time is relative
 to a particular frame of reference, which led to
 his famous equation of 
E = MC² and to the
 recognition of a 
SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM. Corollary
 to this was the revolutionary idea that, as a
 system approaches the speed of light, mass
 increases, clocks slow, and lengths contract,
 nothing being quite what it seems in our everyday
 life. The importance of the observer's frame of
 reference was registered in many other fields
 during the century.

Remagen bridgehead, the first Allied bridgehead
 over the Rhine in World War II. On March 7, 1945,
 U.S. forces seized the Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen
 before it could be fully destroyed by the
 retreating Germans. A bridgehead over the Rhine was
 established relatively easily, a crossing that had
 been expected to be extremely costly and difficult.
 At Remagen the successful Allied invasion of
 Germany from the west was assured.

RENAMO (Mozambique National Resistance), Mozambican
 Lisbon-based insurgent movement financed and
 supplied by Portuguese expatriates and the South
 African government; it developed in the 1970s with
 the initial assistance of the Rhodesian government.
 During the 1980s RENAMO mounted a strongly
 terrorist insurgency, focusing on guerrilla attacks
 on civilians. Beginning in 1987, the South African
 government began to distance itself publicly from
 RENAMO, although continuing to covertly support
 that organization.

Republican Party, one of the two major U.S.
 political parties, formally adopting its name in
 1854. During the 20th century, the party has been
 in power 49 of 89 years, during the presidencies of
 William 
MCKINLEY, Theodore 
ROOSEVELT, William
 Howard 
TAFT, Warren G. 
HARDING, Calvin
 
COOLIDGE, Herbert 
HOOVER, Dwight D.
 
EISENHOWER, Richard 
NIXON, Gerald R. 
FORD,
 Ronald 
REAGAN, and George 
BUSH. A strongly
 business-and-finance-oriented party at the turn of
 the century, it became a progressive, as well as
 conservative, party during the administrations of
 reformer Theodore Roosevelt, splitting and losing
 power in 1912, returning to power in the boom years
 of the 1920s, and then staying in power even when
 widespread Harding administration corruption
 culminated in the 
TEAPOT DOME scandal. It lost
 power to Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT's 
NEW DEAL
 coalitions of the 1930s and through the 
TRUMAN
 years, reasserting itself and coming to power again
 in the prosperous 1950s. From 1968 to 1989, with a
 national shift toward conservatism, the Republican
 Party held the presidency for 17 of 21 years,
 although Democrats in most periods continued to
 control one or both houses of Congress.

Republic of China, name of 
CHINA from 1926 to
 1949 and thereafter the government on Taiwan.

Republic of Cyprus, name of 
CYPRUS from its 1961
 independence.

Republic of Korea, an independent state from August
 15, 1948, consisting of that portion of 
KOREA
 below the 38th parallel. From its inception the
 country has been involved in a continuing "cold
 war" with its northern neighbor, the 
DEMOCRATIC

 PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF KOREA, which in 1950 became
 the hot 
KOREAN WAR, involving the United States,
 the 
UNITED NATIONS, and China and eventuating in
 a decades-long stalemate between the two Koreas.

Resistance, French, a loose confederation of
 anti-German forces fighting underground in France
 during the Nazi occupation of World War II; it
 included 
FREE FRENCH forces tied to the
 government-in-exile led by Charles 
DE GAULLE,
 often called 
MAQUIS, along with Communist-led
 units, former army units continuing to fight on
 after the surrender, and a miscellany of smaller
 anti-Nazi groups.

Resurrection City, the squatters' settlement
 established in Washington, D.C., by the Poor
 People's Campaign of 1968, led by the 
SOUTHERN

 CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE and its president,
 Ralph 
ABERNATHY, who had taken over leadership
 after the assassination of Martin Luther 
KING,
 Jr.

return to normalcy, the 1920 presidential election
 campaign slogan of Warren G. 
HARDING.

Reuben James (October 31, 1941), the first U.S.
 warship sunk in World War II, a destroyer torpedoed
 by a German submarine in the North Atlantic while
 on convoy duty.

Reuther, Walter Philip (1907-70), U.S. automobile
 worker, who in 1935 founded and became a local
 president of the United Automobile Workers (UAW),
 and in 1936 led the first 
SITDOWN STRIKE, leading
 to organization of General Motors and Chrysler in
 1937. He became head of the UAW General Motors
 Department, president of the UAW in 1946, and
 president of the 
CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL

 ORGANIZATIONS (CIO) in 1952, leading the CIO back
 into the AFL-CIO in 1955. He took the UAW out of
 the AFL-CIO in 1968; it rejoined in 1981. He was
 also a political activist and social reformer in
 such areas as social welfare and civil rights.
 During the 
COLD WAR he was a vice-president of
 the anti-Communist International Confederation of
 Free Trade Unions.

Revive China Society, organization founded in
 Hawaii in 1894 by Chinese Republican leader 
SUN

 YAT-SEN, beginning the long campaign to overthrow
 the Manchus that ultimately led to the 
CHINESE

 REVOLUTION of 1911.

Reykjavik summit (October 1986), the second meeting
 between U.S. president Ronald 
REAGAN and U.S.S.R.
 premier Mikhail 
GORBACHEV, at which they failed
 to move ahead, foundering on Soviet insistence on
 and American refusal to restrict the Reagan
 
STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE (STAR WARS) to
 limited laboratory testing.

Reynaud, Paul (1878-1966), French political leader,
 who as a cabinet minister opposed Munich  and
 became premier in March 1940. He wanted to fight on
 as long as possible after the French military
 disaster in the spring of 1940, and resigned rather
 than sign an armistice with the Germans. After
 liberation he reentered politics as a member of the
 Chamber of Deputies, and was a cabinet member in
 several postwar governments.

Reynold v. Sims (1964), a landmark U.S. Supreme
 Court decision, applying the principle of "one man,
 one vote," which had been enunciated in earlier
 decisions, to state offices. By requiring that
 members of the House of Representatives and state
 legislators be elected from districts with
 approximately equal populations, the Court forced a
 massive redrawing of electoral district lines
 throughout the United States.

Reza Khan, an alternate name for 
REZA SHAH

 PAHLEVI, who in 1925 became the first Pahlevi shah
 of Iran.

RFC, the initials of the 
RECONSTRUCTION FINANCE

 CORPORATION, a U.S. federal lending agency of the
 
GREAT DEPRESSION.

Rhee, Syngman (1875-1965), South Korean political
 leader who fled from Japanese-occupied Korea in
 1912 and lived in exile in the United States until
 1945, then returning to Korea. He became the first
 president of South Korea (1948-60). He  led his
 country during the 
KOREAN WAR but later became a
 virtual dictator, presiding over a corrupt police
 state. He was turned out by an uprising in 1960,
 retiring to Hawaii.

Rhesus (Rh) factor, protein substance found in the
 blood of at least 85 out of 100 people, discovered
 in 1940 by Karl 
LANDSTEINER and Alexander S.
 Wiener; Rhesus referred to the kind of monkey used
 in their initial experiments. The mixing of
 Rh-positive blood (with the factor) with
 Rh-negative (without) can cause blood cells to be
 destroyed; in the case of an Rh-negative mother and
 an Rh-positive fetus, the blood mixing can (if not
 identified and remedied) damage the fetus, causing
 retardation or death. The discovery of the factor
 allowed blood intended for transfusions to be
 properly typed for use, opening the way for
 widespread development of 
BLOOD BANKS.

Rhine, Joseph Banks (1895-1980), U.S. psychologist,
 who coined the phrase 
EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION
 (ESP) to cover phenomena such as telepathy,
 clairvoyance, precognition, and often
 psychokinesis. Trained as a botanist, Rhine (with
 others) founded the Parapsychology Laboratory at
 Duke University in 1930: it was designed to
 scientifically test various claims to the existence
 of ESP.

Rhineland, German territory on both sides of the
 Rhine, which was demilitarized and occupied by the
 
ALLIES after World War I and then evacuated in
 1930, still demilitarized. The Rhineland was
 successfully reoccupied by German troops on March
 7, 1936, in violation of the 
VERSAILLES and
 
LOCARNO treaties, and subsequently remilitarized.
 The action, which drew no military response, was a
 key victory for Adolf 
HITLER in the run-up to
 World War II.

Rhodesia, as 
SOUTHERN RHODESIA a former British
 colony that declared its independence in 1965 and
 eventually (1980) became the nation of Zimbabwe.

Ribbentrop, Joachim von (1893-1946), German
 diplomat, who was 
HITLER's personal
 representative abroad during the 1930s, German
 ambassador to Great Britain 1936-38, and from 1938
 German foreign minister. He negotiated several
 major agreements for Hitler, including the 1936
 
ANTI-COMINTERN PACT with Japan, the 1936
 Rome-Berlin Axis, the 1939 German-Italian alliance,
 the 
MUNICH agreement, and the 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT
 of 1939, which paved the way for the start of World
 War II. He was adjudged a war criminal at the
 
NUREMBERG TRIALS and was hanged on October 16,
 1946.

Richter scale, geological scale developed in 1935
 by U.S. seismologist Charles F. Richter to rate the
 magnitude of earthquakes. Each point indicates at
 least 10 times the strength of the previous one, a
 6.0 earthquake being 10 times as powerful as a 5.0
 one.

Richthofen, Manfred von ("The Red Baron;"
 1892-1918), the leading German fighter pilot of
 World War I, who was credited with shooting down 80
 enemy planes. He was killed in aerial combat on
 April 24, 1918, by Canadian aviator Roy Brown.

Rickenbacker, Edward "Eddie" Vernon (1890-1973),
 leading U.S. fighter pilot of World War I, credited
 with shooting  down 22 enemy planes. A
 Congressional Medal of Honor winner, he survived
 the war and later became president of Eastern
 Airlines.

Rickover, Hyman George (1900- ), Polish-American
 career officer in the U.S. Navy who sparked the
 1950s development of nuclear submarines. His work,
 from 1947, as head of the atomic submarine division
 of the Navy's Bureau of Ships produced the first
 nuclear submarine, the Nautilus, in 1954 and led to
 his becoming vice-admiral in 1958 and then admiral
 in 1973, 9 years after his retirement. Rickover was
 also a strong proponent of civilian use of 
NUCLEAR

 ENERGY.

Ride, Sally K. (1951- ), U.S. astrophysicist and
 the first American woman astronaut in space,
 launched aboard the 
SPACE SHUTTLE CHALLENGER on
 its second flight, June 18, 1983.

Ridgway, Matthew Bunker (1895- ), U.S. officer, who
 in World War II commanded the 82nd Airborne
 Division during the invasions of 
SICILY, ITALY
 and 
NORMANDY, becoming a corps commander late in
 the war. In 1950 he took command of American Eighth
 Army and 
UNITED NATIONS ground forces in 
KOREA,
 and in 1951 became commander of all American and UN
 forces in that war and Allied commander in Japan.
 From 1953 until his retirement in 1955 he was U.S.
 Army chief of staff.

Rif War (1921-26), a guerrilla war between Moroccan
 republican forces led by 
ABD EL-KRIM and much
 larger Spanish and French colonial armies. In July
 1921, at the Battle of Annual, Rif forces ambushed
 Spanish forces moving into the Rif Mountains; of
 approximately 20,000 in the Spanish force 12,000
 were killed, most of the rest surrendering. In
 April 1925, Rif forces moved against the French,
 destroying a string of French blockhouses and
 almost capturing Fez. But from September 1925 to
 May 1926, combined French and Spanish forces
 totaling approximately 200,000 men successfully
 pursued the guerrillas; the war ended with Abd
 el-Krim's surrender.

Riga, Treaty of, agreement that ended the
 
SOVIET-POLISH WAR of 1920, settling the
 Polish-Soviet border until the Soviet invasion of
 1939, following the 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT and the
 German invasion of Poland, beginning World War II.


right to die, legal right of a person to refuse
 medical aid that might sustain life. In the second
 half of the 20th century, with the proliferation of
 machines such as respirators, questions arose about
 the responsibility of physicians to keep their
 patients alive by all available means, versus the
 patient's right to refuse medical aid or the
 family's right to make that decision on the
 patient's behalf. In the United States the 1976
 ruling allowing the parents of Karen Ann 
QUINLAN
 to remove her from the respirator was a key case in
 establishing the right to die. Many people also
 felt that the right to die should include the right
 of a person, especially someone who is terminally
 ill, to commit suicide-sometimes called voluntary
 
EUTHANASIA-thoug h such an idea had little legal
 status in most countries.

Right to Life movement, a U.S. antiabortion
 movement that developed after the landmark 1973
 Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade, which
 established the fundamental right of pregnant women
 to make their own choices as to abortion. In the
 late 1980s Right to Life advocates moved into civil
 disobedience in an attempt to publicize their
 position, by blocking the operation of abortion
 clinics. Some extremists in the Right to Life
 movement went even further, embarking on a
 terrorist bombing campaign.

River Plate, Battle of the (December 13, 1939), a
 sea battle between the German pocket battleship
 Graf Spee and the three lighter British cruisers
 that caught up with it at the mouth of the River
 Plate. The Graf Spee disabled the British heavy
 cruiser Exeter and severely damaged both light
 cruisers but was itself damaged and forced to make
 port in Montevideo, Uruguay. The two light cruisers
 were joined by another heavy cruiser, and other
 British ships were on the way. The captain of the
 Graf Spee, refused more than 72 hours of sanctuary
 by the neutral Uruguayan government, sank his own
 ship outside the harbor.

RNA (ribonucleic acid), molecule that works with
 
DNA to reproduce hereditary material in the
 
GENE.

Roberto, Holden Alvaro (1925- ), Angolan
 nationalist, leader of the the 
NATIONAL FRONT FOR

 THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA (FNLA) during the 1961-74
 
ANGOLAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE; he was head of the
 Angolan government in exile and then leader of FNLA
 forces during the long civil war that followed. By
 1979 his forces had been defeated by the
 Cuban-Angolan forces of the People's Republic of
 Angola. Roberto ultimately found political asylum
 in France.

Roberts, Oral (1918- ), U.S. evangelist, founder of
 the Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association and Oral
 Roberts University, and a major figure in the
 worldwide fundamentalist Christian evangelical
 movement. At least twice in the late 1980s, he
 threatened to commit suicide if his fund-raising
 goals were not met.

Roberts, Owen Josephus (1875-1955), U.S. lawyer,
 law professor, and 
TEAPOT DOME prosecutor;  he
 was appointed to the Supreme Court by Herbert
 
HOOVER in 1930. He was a moderate on the Court,
 in some instances finding 
NEW DEAL legislation
 constitutional and in others refusing to do so. He
 headed the commission that studied the Japanese
 attack on 
PEARL HARBOR, his 1942 report
 castigating the leadership of the U.S. armed
 forces.

Robertson, Marion Gordon "Pat" (1930- ), U.S.
 evangelical minister, ordained in 1959 and from
 1960 the first television evangelist and host of
 the "700 Club." During the 1970s and 1980s, he
 built his Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN) into
 a considerable business enterprise, and then used
 his religious following as a base for his
 unsuccessful 1987-88 run for the Republican
 presidential nomination.

Robeson, Paul Bustill (1898-1976), U.S. lawyer,
 actor, singer, and Black activist. He was
 simultaneously one of the leading performing
 artists of his time and a major figure on the
 political left in the anti-fascist and American
 civil rights movements of the 1930s and 1940s. He
 was accused of Communist sympathies during the
 
MCCARTHY period and suffered intense harassment
 by the witchhunters of the day, ultimately finding
 it impossible to pursue his career in the United
 States. In 1950, in an attempt to silence him, he
 was denied a passport by the U.S. government, an
 action nullified by the Supreme Court in 1958. He
 thereafter lived for some years in Great Britain,
 while working in many parts of the world as a
 theater and concert artist. Seriously ill, he
 returned to the United States in 1963.

Robinson, Jack Roosevelt "Jackie" (1919-72), U.S.
 athlete who in 1947 became the first Black major
 league baseball player and the first to break the
 color line in U.S. professional sports; his dignity
 and professional accomplishment helped to pave the
 way for all who were to follow. He was a star
 player for Branch Rickey's Brooklyn Dodgers
 1947-57.

robot, sophisticated machine, mostly run by
 
COMPUTER, designed to do tasks once performed by
 humans; from the Czech word robota (slave or forced
 labor). After Karel Capek introduced the term in
 his 1921 play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots),
 robots were a science fiction staple, usually
 depicted in humanoid form. Researchers in the 1930s
 and 1940s, notably Norbert 
WIENER, developed
 ideas about 
FEEDBACK-essentially, the ability of
 a machine to "learn" from experience and modify its
 workings to meet changing conditions, that being
 the difference between basic preprogrammed robots
 and the still-ideal robots able to "learn" through
 trial and error. In 1946 American inventor George
 Devol invented a device to control machines and 8
 years later a "programmable arm." The first firm to
 make and sell industrial robots was Unimation,
 founded in 1960 by Devol and Joe Engelberger; the
 first robot was installed the following year at a
 New Jersey General Motors plant. Early rudimentary
 robots, called universal transfer devices (UTDs),
 were used for simple repetitive tasks such as spot
 welding, spray painting, and stacking. But the 1971
 development of the 
MICROPROCESSOR, which resulted
 in the miniaturization of computers and their
 consequent drop in cost, made more sophisticated
 robots a practical possibility. By the 1980s robots
 were generally being used in automobile,
 robot-making, and general manufacturing operations.
 Japan led the way in robot use and in the attempt
 to develop "smarter" robots, drawing on work done
 on 
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE. By the late 1980s,
 well over 100,000 robots were being used worldwide,
 almost two thirds of them in Japan.

Rockefeller, John Davison (1839-1937), U.S.
 19th-century petroleum industry magnate, whose
 Standard Oil trust dominated more than 90% of the
 U.S. petroleum industry and had massive holdings in
 other extractive industries and transportation,
 until the court-ordered dissolution of Standard Oil
 of Ohio in 1892. In 1911 a landmark decision of the
 Supreme Court dissolved its successor, Standard Oil
 of New Jersey. Rockefeller then became a major
 20th-century philanthropist who, among other gifts,
 initiated several major foundations. His son, John
 D. Rockefeller, Jr., who was also a major
 industrialist and philanthropist, had five
 similarly minded sons, one of whom was Nelson A.
 
ROCKEFELLER.

Rockefeller, Nelson Aldrich (1908-79), U.S.
 four-term Republican governor of New York
 (1958-73), who served one term as Gerald R.
 
FORD'S appointee to the vice-presidency
 (1974-77). (The 
WATERGATE scandal had caused
 Richard M. 
NIXON to resign the presidency shortly
 after Spiro T. 
AGNEW's resignation of the vice
 presidency in 1973, while facing charges of tax
 evasion.) A liberal, Rockefeller failed to gain the
 Republican presidential nomination in 1960, 1964,
 and 1968. He was the grandson of John Davison
 
ROCKEFELLER.

rocket, aircraft moved by 
JET PROPULSION but
 (unlike 
JETS) carrying both fuel and oxygen on
 board. Modern rocketry began when American
 physicist Robert Hutchings 
GODDARD sent up the
 first liquid-propellant rocket in 1926. Goddard and
 others developed devices such as gyroscopes to
 stabilize rockets; in particular, Theodore von
 
KARMAN developed solid propellants. Others worked
 in Eur ope, among them French test pilot Robert
 Esnault-Petrie, who coined the term "astronautics,"
 and Sergei 
KOROLEV, key Soviet rocket and later
 spacecraft engineer. Leading the German rocket
 technicians was Wernher von 
BRAUN, whose team
 developed the 
V-1 AND V-2 BOMBS of World War II.
 After the war von Braun and about 100 other rocket
 experts went to the United States, helping to
 develop research rockets, 
GUIDED MISSILES, and
 spacecraft. In the Soviet Union, Korolev and his
 successor, Valentin 
GLUSHKO, developed the
 rockets that sent into space the world's first
 artificial 
SATELLITE, SPUTNIK, and the U.S.S.R.'s
 first 
INTERCONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILE (ICBM),
 both in 1957.

Roe v. Wade (1973), a landmark U.S. Supreme Court
 decision, clearly establishing the fundamental
 right of pregnant women to make their own choices
 as to abortion. The decision was followed by long,
 powerful antiabortion and proabortion campaigns.

Roehm, Ernst (1887-1934), organizer and leader of
 the 
NAZI STORM TROOPERS (SA); he was murdered by
 order of Adolf 
HITLER on June 30, 1934, as part
 of the Nazi 
BLOOD PURGE.

Rogers, Carl Ransom (1902-87), U.S. psychologist,
 whose ideas spurred the human potential movement
 from the 1960s. After early work with troubled
 children, Rogers began to develop what he called
 client-centered therapy, in which a nondirective
 psychologist helped "clients" focus on personal
 growth and communication, as opposed to the
 Freudian or medical doctor-patient relationship.
 His work helped form the underpinning for variously
 named encounter groups or sensitivity training,
 permissive interpersonal gatherings aimed at
 spontaneity in expressing feelings and sensitivity
 to feelings of others.

Rojas Pinilla, Gustavo (1907-75), Colombian officer
 who became armed forces commander-in-chief in 1950
 and dictator after the coup of 1953. He ruled until
 1957, during the worst years of 
LA VIOLENCIA, and
 was then peacefully removed in negotiations led by
 the next president of Colombia, Alberto 
LLERAS
 Camargo.

Rokossovski, Konstantin Konstantinovich
 (1896-1968), Soviet officer, who saw service during
 World War I and the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR. He was a
 corps and then army commander in 1941, his forces
 playing a substantial role in the defense of
 
MOSCOW, and in 1942 was overall commander of
 Soviet forces engaged in the Battle of
 
STALINGRAD. Ultimately, forces under his command
 struck deep into Germany. He held a series of key
 Soviet military positions during the postwar
 period.

Rome, Fall of (June 4, 1944), peaceful taking of
 Rome by Allied troops pursuing the retreating
 Germans north; it had previously been declared an
 open city.

Rommel, Erwin (1891-1944), German officer, who saw
 service in World War I and rose under Adolf
 
HITLER to command an armored division during the
 Battle of 
FRANCE in 1940. In early 1941 he became
 commander of German forces in North Africa, soon
 generating a string of victories that took his
 forces almost to Alexandria and earned him the
 popular name "The Desert Fox." But his forces lost
 the key Battle of 
EL ALAMEIN, retreating across
 North Africa before stronger Allied forces, and he
 was recalled to Germany. In 1944 he commanded
 German armies in France facing the 
NORMANDY
 invasion, subsequently retreating before the
 advancing Allies. He had become disillusioned with
 Hitler's leadership, starting in North Africa, and
 had agreed to cooperate with those who attempted to
 end Hitler's regime in July 1944; injured in an air
 attack, he was hospitalized on July 20, the day of
 the attack. However, Hitler learned of his
 complicity and ordered his death. Rommel committed
 suicide on October 14, 1944; his death of war
 wounds was announced, and he was buried with
 honors, for he was Germany's most popular World War
 II general.

Roosevelt, Anna Eleanor (1884-1962), U.S. political
 leader and reformer who became a world figure and
 one of the leading women of her time. She was a
 niece of president Theodore 
ROOSEVELT and married
 future President Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT in 1905.
 She was active in Red Cross work during World War
 I, in such liberal organizations as the 
LEAGUE OF

 WOMEN VOTERS in the 1920s, and from the early
 1920s in the Democratic Party. She became a
 national figure after her husband's presidential
 election, developing an active, independent
 political life and stance of her own, and
 powerfully influencing the development of 
NEW

 DEAL social programs through direct influence on
 the president and as a lecturer, radio personality,
 and the writer of the nationally syndicated
 newspaper column, "My Day." After Franklin
 Roosevelt's death in 1945, she continued her work.
 She was a member of the U.S. delegation to the
 
UNITED NATIONS 1945-52 and was largely
 responsible for the passage of the UN Declaration
 of Human Rights. She was also active in reform
 Democratic politics and became one of the
 best-known speakers and authors of the period. Her
 books include the three autobiographical works This
 Is My Story (1937), This I Remember (1949), and On
 My Own (1958).

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (1882-1945), U.S.
 lawyer, New York state legislator (1911-13),
 assistant secretary of the navy (1913-20), twice
 governor of New York (1929-33), and 32nd President
 of the United States (1933-45); he led his country
 during an unprecedented four terms in office,
 through the 
GREAT DEPRESSION and World War II,
 although he had from 1921 been crippled by polio. A
 Democrat, he defeated incumbent Republican Herbert
 
HOOVER in 1932 and Republicans Alfred M. 
LANDON
 in 1936, Wendell 
WILLKIE in 1940, and Thomas E.
 
DEWEY in 1944. In his 1932 acceptance speech at
 the Democratic National Convention, he promised a
 "
NEW DEAL for the American people"; in office,
 his domestic program came to be known by that name.
 As president, with the American system greatly
 threatened by the massive crisis of the Depression,
 and with the assistance of his 
BRAIN TRUST, he
 introduced and vigorously promoted a series of
 stimulative economic moves and major legislative
 and regulatory changes, many of them in the first
 
HUNDRED DAYS of his first administration. Among
 the most important of these were a quick 
BANK

 HOLIDAY, the end of 
PROHIBITION, and
 establishment of the 
NATIONAL RECOVERY

 ADMINISTRATION (NRA) and the 
AGRICULTURAL

 ADJUSTMENT ADMINISTRATION (AAA); both of the
 latter were later declared unconstitutional in
 their early forms but were greatly stimulative
 during their lifetimes. He also pushed through the
 
CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS (CCC), PUBLIC WORKS

 ADMINISTRATION (PWA), FEDERAL EMERGENCY RELIEF

 ADMINSTRATION, CIVIL WORKS ADMINISTRATION, WORKS

 PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION (WPA), FEDERAL DEPOSIT

 INSURANCE CORPORATION (FDIC), HOME OWNERS LOAN

 CORPORATION (HOLC), the 
TENNESSEE VALLEY

 AUTHORITY (TVA), and 
SOCIAL SECURITY. Effective
 securities regulation began, with establishment of
 the 
SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION. Labor
 organization was encouraged, with passage of the
 
WAGNER ACT and establishment of the 
NATIONAL

 LABOR RELATIONS BOARD, which were followed by a
 wave of industrial organization. Abroad, he faced
 the growth of 
FASCISM, and although early
 attempting to maintain neutrality, he cooperated
 with Great Britain very closely after the major
 Nazi successes of 1940. In the Pacific the growth
 of militarism in Japan forced war in December 1941;
 thereafter he was the wartime president who, with
 his British, Soviet, Chinese, and French
 counterparts, formed the coalition of Allies that
 brought victory over the Axis. He did not live to
 see that entirely through, dying in office while at
 Warm Springs, Georgia, on April 12, 1945.

Roosevelt, Theodore (1858-1919), U.S. reformer,
 conservationist, trustbuster, sometime imperialist,
 writer, rancher, New York Republican state
 assemblyman (1882-1884), U.S. Civil Service
 Commission member and head (1889-1895), New York
 City police commissioner (1895-1897), assistant
 secretary of the navy (1897-1898), colonel of the
 Rough Riders and leader of the charge up San Juan's
 Kettle Hill during the Spanish-American War, New
 York governor (1899-1901), vice-president, and 26th
 president of the United States (1901-09). He
 succeeded to the presidency on the assassination of
 William 
MCKINLEY, who died in Buffalo on
 September 14, 1901, and defeated Democrat Alton B.
 
PARKER in 1904. As president he became deeply
 involved in a series of attempts to regulate
 monopolies and curb monopolistic business
 practices. To those ends he initiated the 
NORTHERN

 SECURITIES CASE, which ultimately broke up that
 immense railroad trust; intervened to force
 settlement of the long anthracite coal strike of
 1902; and in 1906 pushed through both the 
PURE

 FOOD AND DRUG ACT and the 
HEPBURN ACT, which
 gave the Interstate Commerce Commission some
 railroad rate regulatory powers, following up on
 the Elkins Act of 1903, which began the regulatory
 process in this area. As a conservationist he
 supported a wide variety of initiatives aimed at
 creating new national parks and monuments and large
 new forest and national resource reserves; in 1905
 he initiated the U.S. Forest Service. As an
 imperialist, he fomented a Panamanian revolution
 against Colombia and then took a large strip of
 land for the 
PANAMA CANAL, which he actively
 encouraged. He also sent U.S. forces into the
 Dominican Republic in 1904, although withdrawing
 American forces from Cuba in 1902 and acting as
 mediator in the Far East. And as a progressive
 Republican reformer, he put forward the 
SQUARE

 DEAL slogan after the election of 1904,
 anticipating the 
NEW DEAL of another Roosevelt (a
 cousin) 28 years later. He ran for the presidency
 again in 1912 but failed to gain the Republican
 presidential nomination; instead he ran as a
 
PROGRESSIVE (BULL MOOSE) candidate that year,
 losing to Democrat Woodrow 
WILSON.

Roosevelt Corollary, a U.S. Western Hemisphere
 foreign policy position stated by President
 Theodore 
ROOSEVELT in his December 1904 message
 to Congress, as an amendment to the Monroe
 Doctrine; it maintained that the United States had
 the right to intervene in the internal affairs of
 any Western Hemisphere nation guilty of financial
 and other "misdeeds" against foreign nations. It
 served as justification for the Cuban and several
 other such interventions until replaced by Franklin
 Delano 
ROOSEVELT'S GOOD NEIGHBOR POLICY of the
 1930s.

Root, Elihu (1845-1937), U.S. lawyer, who became
 secretary of war in the cabinets of presidents
 William 
MCKINLEY and Theodore 
ROOSEVELT,
 1899-1904, in that position administering Cuba, the
 Philippines, and other formerly Spanish
 territories, and sending troops against the forces
 of Emile 
AGUINALDO during the
 
PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR. He was Roosevelt's
 secretary of state 1905-09, and a New York
 Republican senator, 1909-15; after World War I he
 actively supported the 
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF

 JUSTICE and the 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS.

Roper, Elmo Burns, Jr. (1900-71), U.S.
 public-opinion analyst, who was an early figure in
 the development of modern public opinion polls. In
 1933 he founded Roper Research Associates, doing
 surveys for Fortune magazine from 1936. A pioneer
 in scientific political polling, Roper became
 famous for accurately predicting the vote in the
 1936, 1940, and 1944 U.S. presidential elections,
 when earlier nonscientific polls had wildly
 inaccurate predictions.

Rosenberg, Alfred (1893-1946), a Nazi racist
 theoretician who provided much of the ideological
 justification for the mass murders of millions of
 Jews, Russians, Poles, Gypsies, and other
 "inferior" peoples before and during World War II.
 He was found guilty of war crimes at the 
NUREMBERG

 TRIALS and was hanged on October 14, 1946.

Rosenberg, Ethel Greenglass (1915-53) and Julius
 Rosenberg (1918-53), U.S. Communists convicted in
 1951 of espionage during World War II, resulting in
 the passage of 
ATOMIC BOMB secrets to the Soviet
 Union; on April 5, 1951, they were sentenced to
 death by Judge Irving R. Kaufman. All appeals
 having failed, including clemency appeals to
 presidents 
TRUMAN and 
EISENHOWER and a massive
 worldwide campaign to free them, they were killed
 at Sing Sing, on June 19, 1953. They were the first
 Americans to be executed in peacetime for
 espionage. Their trial, convictions, and executions
 occurred at the height of the 
MCCARTHY period.
 Although they were found guilty, the severity of
 the sentence and its ultimate execution were widely
 attributed to the anti-Communist hysteria of the
 time.

Rote Kapelle, the 
RED ORCHESTRA, a large Soviet
 intelligence network operating before and during
 World War II in Nazi-held Europe.

Roth v. United States (1957), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision defining obscenity, holding
 it unprotected by the First Amendment, and thereby
 making it possible to legislate against it, and to
 make it a criminal offense.

Rothschild, Edmond de (1845-1934), French banker,
 head of the House of Rothschild in France, who from
 1882 became financial patron of the Lovers of Zion
 and other Zionist organizations. His support helped
 establish the agricultural settlements, towns,
 cities, industries, educational and scientific
 institutions, and physical infrastructure that laid
 the basis for the establishment of the Palestine
 Jewish community that ultimately became the modern
 state of Israel.

Rotterdam bombing (May 13, 1940), the German
 bombing and destruction of much of the Dutch city
 early in World War II. The terror bombing of
 Rotterdam, a nonmilitary target, was part of a
 pattern of such bombings, aimed at breaking Dutch
 and Belgian will to resist the German invasion.

Rubin, Jerry (1938- ), an anti-
VIETNAM WAR
 activist who became a leader of the 
YIPPIE
 movement and who was convicted and later acquitted
 as one of the 
CHICAGO SEVEN after the 
CHICAGO

 DEMOCRATIC CONVENTION disorders of 1968.

Ruby, Jack (1911-67), murderer of Lee Harvey
 
OSWALD in the Dallas, Texas, city jail on
 November 24, 1963, while a massive worldwide
 television audience watched; two days earlier, on
 November 22, Oswald had murdered President John F.
 
KENNEDY. Ruby died in prison on January 3, 1967.


Ruhr, the key center of German heavy industry,
 which was occupied by France and Belgium in 1923,
 because of German failure to pay reparations
 provided by Treaty of 
VERSAILLES. It was
 evacuated in 1925 after substantial German
 reparations payments.

Rumania, until 1878, part of the Ottoman Empire; in
 the 20th century, a winner in the 
SECOND BALKAN

 WAR and 
WORLD WAR I, and an autocratic state
 during the interwar period, increasingly dominated
 by the Iron Guard. The fascist dictatorship of Ion
 
ANTONESCU took Rumania into World War II on the
 Nazi side. The country was occupied by Soviet
 troops in 1944, and officially became an orthodox
 People's Republic on December 30, 1947, led by
 
GHEORGE GHEORGIU-DEJ. In the early 1960s, he
 moved the country away from complete Soviet
 domination, and toward his own version of
 Communism. He was succeeded in 1965 by Nicolae
 
CEAUSESCU, who for the next 25 years developed an
 increasingly rigid, repressive dictatorship, until
 overthrown by the 
RUMANIAN REVOLUTION.

Rumanian campaign of 1944 (August-September 1944),
 late World War II attack on Rumania by advancing
 Soviet armies. Rumania surrendered on August 23,
 its armies then going over to the Soviets, while
 the German-Soviet conflict in Rumania continued.
 Bucharest was taken on September 1, while the
 remaining German troops retreated, having taken
 substantial losses.

Rumanian Revolution (December 16-28, 1989),
 uprising that began with large pro-democracy
 demonstrations on December 16 in Timosoara,
 Transylvania; security forces clashed with
 demonstrators, and on December 17 killed hundreds,
 in the 
TIMOSOARA MASSACRE. Unrest swept the
 country as reports of the massacre began to
 circulate. On December 21 demonstrators in
 Bucharest interrupted a nationally televised
 
CEAUSESCU speech; security forces then opened
 fire. Mass demonstrations in Bucharest on December
 22 went over into armed revolt, with the army
 quickly joining the revolutionaries against the
 security forces, as fighting spread throughout the
 country. The revolutionaries were led by a hastily
 organized National Salvation Front. President
 Nicolae Ceausescu and his wife, Elena Ceausescu,
 were captured on December 22, and executed by the
 new government on December 25. Security forces
 continued to resist, but the revolution had been
 completed by December 28.

Runstedt, Karl Rudolph Gerd von (1875-1953), German
 officer, who saw service in World War I, became an
 army commander during the early years of the Nazi
 government, and commanded an army group during the
 invasion of Poland in 1939. During the Battle of
 
FRANCE he commanded the army group that broke
 through from the Ardennes to the North Sea, forcing
 the surrender of the Belgians, the evacuation of
 the British, and the fall of France; after that
 campaign he became a field marshal. During the
 invasion of the Soviet Union his army group
 penetrated the Ukraine; they took Kiev and with it
 an estimated 1 million Soviet troops but were
 stopped at Rostov. Transferred to Western Europe to
 prepare for the coming Allied invasion, he
 commanded all German forces in western Europe at
 the time of the 
NORMANDY invasion. Unable to stop
 the Allied armies, and sure that Germany was losing
 the war, in July 1944 he urged Hitler to sue for
 peace. Instead Hitler relieved him of command, only
 to return him to command in September. He was
 captured by British troops in May 1945.

Rural Electrification Administration (REA), a U.S.
 
NEW DEAL agency established in 1935, that
 encouraged the development of farmers' cooperatives
 to build transmission lines and supply electricity
 to rural areas; the REA played a substantial role
 in the electrification of rural America.

Rushdie, Salman (1947- ), British author, best
 known as a novelist, whose novel Midnight's
 Children won a 1981 Booker award. His 1988 novel,
 The Satanic Verses, generated worldwide Islamic
 fundamentalist protests and drew a February 14,
 1989, death threat from Iranian Ayatollah Ruhollah
 
KHOMEINI, who offered a $1 million reward to his
 murderer. The death threat generated enormous
 controversy, which resulted in the renewed
 isolation of Iran from the Western world. The
 Satanic Verses became a best-seller in many
 countries, though banned in much of the Islamic
 world; its author went into hiding.

Rusk, David Dean (1909- ), U.S. diplomat, who
 served in the war and state departments during the
 post-World War II period, was head of the
 Rockefeller Foundation 1952-61, and was secretary
 of state 1961-69, through the 
KENNEDY and
 
JOHNSON administrations. An advocate of increased
 U.S. commitment to the 
VIETNAM WAR, Rusk became
 Lyndon B. Johnson's chief Vietnam adviser, also
 serving as chief administration spokesman in
 defense of Johnson's Vietnam policies until
 deescalation of the war and peace negotiations
 began in 1968.

Russell, Bertrand (1872-1970), British philosopher,
 mathematician, writer, and radical reformer, who
 taught at Cambridge until fired in 1916 because of
 his opposition to World War I. His Principia
 Mathematica (1910-13), co-authored with Alfred
 North 
WHITEHEAD, was a landmark in attempting to
 develop a stronger, more certain logical base for
 mathematics, work soon undercut by that of Kurt
 
GODEL. He was a sexual and educational reformer,
 a socialist, and after the use of the 
ATOMIC BOMB
 at 
HIROSHIMA and 
NAGASAKI in 1945, a leader of
 worldwide antinuclear activities. In his mid-90s,
 he was a leading opponent of the 
VIETNAM WAR.

Russian Civil War (1917-22), a 5-year-long series
 of widely separated military actions throughout the
 country, fought by the new 
BOLSHEVIK government
 after the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION of 1917. Heavy and
 protracted fighting developed between the new Red
 Army and "White" military forces in southern Russia
 and the Ukraine, Finland, the Baltic provinces,
 Poland, along the Trans-Siberian railway, and in
 Siberia, with insurgent forces augmented and
 supported by foreign expeditionary forces from many
 nations. In 1917 Cossack and Red forces fought each
 other in the Don basin; by 1919 the fighting had
 become a large conflict between the Red forces and
 White armies led by General Anton 
DENIKIN. In May
 1918 some 40,000-70,000 former Czech and Slovak
 World War I prisoners, trying to fight their way
 out of Russia via the Trans-Siberian Railroad,
 formed the 
CZECH LEGION and supported the White
 forces in eastern Russia and Siberia, led from late
 1918 by Admiral Alexander 
KOLCHAK. In early 1918
 Finnish forces led by Baron Karl Gustaf
 
MANNERHEIM, supported by German forces, took and
 held Finland. In August 1918 White forces nearly
 took Moscow, and Ukrainian nationalist forces led
 by General Simon 
PETLYURA attempted to set up an
 independent Ukrainian state in November 1918. In
 1919 White forces led by Kolchak, Denikin, and
 General Nicolai 
YUDENICH attacked the Red Army
 from the east, south, and northwest, but all
 ultimately failed. In 1920 the brief 
RUSSO-POLISH

 WAR, the capture and execution of Kolchak, the Red
 success in the Crimea against General Piotr
 
WRANGEL'S army, and the securing of Latvian,
 Lithuanian, Estonian, and Finnish independence
 completed the major actions of the civil war. Only
 White forces in Siberia remained, supported by the
 Japanese army. When the Japanese withdrew, late in
 1922, the civil war was over. There had been
 considerable intervention by other governments. In
 December 1917 a substantial Japanese force took
 Vladivostock and was followed into Siberia in 1918
 by a smaller American force. In March 1918 a small
 combined British, French, and American
 expeditionary force took Murmansk and supported
 White armies in northern Russia while smaller
 French forces landed in Odessa, and French and
 British supplies reached White armies in southern
 Russia.

Russian Revolution, a rather general term that has
 come to embrace the entire sequence of events
 beginning with the 
FEBRUARY REVOLUTION of 1917,
 continuing with the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION of 1917,
 and concluding with the end of the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL

 WAR and the withdrawal of the last foreign troops
 in 1922.

Russian Revolution of 1905, uprising that began on
 
BLOODY SUNDAY, January 9, 1905, when troops at
 the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg killed and
 wounded hundreds of unarmed petitioners. A wave of
 demonstrations and armed forces mutinies followed,
 the most notable of these being the mutiny on the
 battleship Potemkin. In August, in an attempt to
 ease the situation, Czar 
NICHOLAS II promised to
 create an elected national body, the Duma, but it
 would have no real power. The revolution continued
 and grew, with strikes, demonstrations, and armed
 clashes, and the creation of the first workers'
 councils (
SOVIETS). The Czar then issued his
 
OCTOBER MANIFESTO, promising much more
 substantial reforms and the inauguration of a
 constitutional monarchy, thereby considerably
 blunting the thrust of the revolution, and making
 it possible for his armed forces to suppress
 remaining pockets of armed resistance.

Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), conflict that began
 with a successful surprise Japanese attack on the
 Russian Far Eastern fleet, at anchor in Port Arthur
 harbor on February 4, 1904; the Japanese did not
 declare war until February 10. The Japanese
 besieged the city for 7 months and took it. On
 land, the Japanese army took Korea and much of
 Manchuria, ultimately decisively defeating the
 Russian army at the Battle of 
MUKDEN, February
 21-March 10, 1904, in an engagement involving
 600,000 men. Meanwhile, the main Russian naval
 force, the Black Sea fleet, steamed east around
 Africa and Asia to engage the Japanese navy, most
 of it going around the Cape of Good Hope. At the
 Battle of 
TSUSHIMA, on May 27, 1905, the much
 larger, obsolete, poorly maintained and trained
 Russian fleet was destroyed by the Japanese fleet,
 the Russians losing eight battleships and all but
 one cruiser and five destroyers and the Japanese
 losing three torpedo boats. The war ended with the
 Treaty of 
PORTSMOUTH, New Hampshire, mediated by
 U.S. president Theodore 
ROOSEVELT, in which Japan
 won Port Arthur, half of Sakhalin Island, and a
 major role in Korea, as well as driving the
 Russians out of Manchuria.

Rustin, Bayard (1912-87), U.S. pacifist, Quaker,
 socialist, and civil rights rights activist, a
 field secretary of the 
CONGRESS OF RACIAL

 EQUALITY (CORE) in 1941, race relations director
 of the Fellowship of Reconciliation 1941-53, head
 of the War Resisters League 1953-55, and an aide of
 Martin Luther 
KING Jr., 1955-60. He was a
 longtime associate of A. Philip 
RANDOLPH in civil
 rights and socialist activities. In 1963 he
 organized the massive 
MARCH ON WASHINGTON, at
 which King delivered his 
I HAVE A DREAM speech.
 In his later years he continued to advocate
 pacifism and interracial cooperation, sometimes
 against criticism generated by separatist Black
 leaders.

Rutan, Richard, American pilot who, with Jeana
 
YEAGER, made the first nonstop airplane flight
 around the world, in the Voyager in 1986.

Rutherford, Ernest (1871-1937), New Zealand-born
 British physicist who, with Frederick 
SODDY,
 developed the theory (1902-03) that 
RADIOACTIVITY
 resulted in the transformation of one element to
 another. In the same period he studied the three
 natural products of radioactivity, discovering and
 naming alpha and beta particles, and recognizing
 gamma rays as a type of 
RADIATION similar to
 
X-RAYS; he also developed the concept of
 
HALF-LIFE. In 1911, with Hans 
GEIGER and Ernest
 Marsden, he developed the basic model of 
ATOMIC

 STRUCTURE with a 
NUCLEUS at the center, later
 modified by Niels 
BOHR and others. In 1914 he
 discovered the 
PROTON, and 5 years later he was
 the first to induce radioactivity artificially.
 Winner of the 1908 Nobel Prize for Chemistry,
 Rutherford was widely respected as a teacher and
 long-time head of Britain's Cavendish Laboratory.


Rutledge, Wiley Blount (1894-1949), U.S. lawyer,
 law professor, and judge, who was appointed to the
 Supreme Court by Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT in 1943;
 on the Court he was generally a liberal.

Rwanda (Republic of Rwanda), until World War I a
 German protectorate; taken by the Allies during the
 war, it became part of the Belgian-administered
 Rwanda-Urundi 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS trust territory
 during the interwar period and an independent
 republic on January 28, 1961.

Rwanda Civil War (1962-63), a failed attempt by the
 former Tutsi leadership to regain control of the
 country after the Hutu electoral victories of 1960
 and 1961 and the establishment of the
 Hutu-dominated Rwandan republic. After the failure
 of the revolt, 1963-64, Hutu massacres of Tutsis
 resulted in an estimated 10,000-15,000 deaths and
 generated an estimated 200,000 Tutsi refugees.

Saar, an industrial area on the French-German
 border. Its coal mines were awarded to France for
 15 years by the Treaty of 
VERSAILLES under
 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS administration, with a
 plebescite providing choice of affiliation
 thereafter. The plebescite of January 13, 1935,
 resulted in an overwhelming vote for return to
 Germany.

Saarinen, Eliel (1873-1950) and EERO SAARINEN
 (1910-61), Finnish-American architects, a father
 and son who made major contributions to the
 development of modern architecture. Eliel Saarinen
 was the leading Finnish architect of his time;
 before his emigration to the United States in 1923
 his most notable building was the Helsinki railroad
 terminal (1910-14). Eero Saarinen designed such
 major structures as the MIT auditorium and chapel
 (1955) and the TWA terminal at John F. Kennedy
 Airport in New York (1962).

Sabin, Albert Bruce (1906- ), Polish-American
 physician and medical researcher who in 1956
 developed a 
POLIO VACCINE made from deactivated
 live viruses. Taken orally, it was cheaper, easier
 to store, and effective for longer than Jonas
 
SALK's earlier vaccine, and became the vaccine of
 choice throughout the world.

Sabin vaccine, live-virus 
POLIO VACCINE developed
 in 1956 by Albert 
SABIN.

Sabra and Shatilla massacres (September 16-18,
 1982), the mass murders of 400 or more men, women,
 and children at the Sabra and Shatilla Palestinian
 refugee camps at Beirut, Lebanon, by 
PHALANGE
 militia, one day after the assassination of
 Phalange leader Bashir 
GEMAYEL. Israeli troops in
 the area did nothing to bar Phalange entry into the
 camps or to stop the massacres in progress, and
 were accused throughout the world of complicity.
 Israel's Kahane Commission denied Israeli
 complicity but accused Menachim 
BEGIN, Ariel
 
SHARON, and several high Israeli officers of
 failure to prevent the massacres.

Sacco-Vanzetti case, controversial trial involving
 shoemaker Nicola Sacco and fish peddler Bartolomeo
 Vanzetti, both anarchists and foreign-born
 Italian-Americans. Convicted on July 14, 1921, of
 being members of a group that killed two men during
 the course of an April 15, 1920, payroll robbery in
 Braintree, Massachusetts, Sacco and Vanzetti were
 executed on August 23, 1927, after 6 years of
 worldwide protests. Fifty years later they were
 posthumously exonerated by the state of
 Massachusetts, for, as claimed at the time by their
 defense attorneys, their trial was conducted with
 extreme prejudice by Judge Webster Thayer, and in
 an antianarchist, anti-Italian, anti-immigrant
 climate that made a fair trial impossible.

Sadat, Anwar al- (1918-1981), Egyptian officer and
 revolutionary, who was imprisoned for anti-British
 activities during and after World War II, and was
 closely associated with Gamal Abdel 
NASSER in the
 
EGYPTIAN REVOLUTION of 1952. He held several
 leading positions under Nasser, including the
 vice-presidency, and succeeded to the presidency
 after Nasser's death in 1970. Sadat expelled his
 Soviet advisers in 1972. In 1973 he initiated the
 
FOURTH ARAB-ISRAELI WAR (
YOM KIPPUR WAR) with
 successful surprise attacks on Israel, although the
 war ended with Israeli victory. After the war Sadat
 helped organize the Arab 
OIL EMBARGO, which
 forced emergency American mediation of the
 remaining issues; he then moved into a closer
 relationship with the United States and an attempt
 to peacefully resolve some of the major
 Arab-Israeli disputes. In 1977 he offered to go to
 Israel if that would help bring peace, and
 subsequently did so, beginning the sequence of
 negotiations that led to the Egyptian-Israeli peace
 treaty of 1979 and Israeli evacuation of the Sinai
 Peninsula; he and Menachim 
BEGIN jointly received
 the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978. Although the rest of
 the Arab world condemned the treaty, he continued
 to press for peace in the area, including
 Palestinian autonomy after Israeli withdrawal from
 the 
WEST BANK and the Gaza Strip. He was
 assassinated by Islamic fundamentalists in Cairo
 October 6, 1981, while reviewing a parade.

Sagan, Carl (1934- ), U.S. astronomer, who played a
 key role in planning planetary space probes with
 
NASA, his own specialty being planetary
 atmospheres and the possibility of life on other
 planets or beyond, as described in popular books,
 such as Intelligent Life in the Universe (1966),
 and television series, notably "Cosmos" (1980). He
 was among the group whose concern over the effects
 of atomic warfare led to 1984 predictions of a
 
NUCLEAR WINTER.

Sahel drought and famine (1965- ), the continuing
 long-term drought in the African lands abutting the
 southern Sahara desert. The presence of millions of
 refugees because of continuing wars in the region,
 and the long-term overgrazing of diminishing
 pasturelands, have combined to create a massive and
 continuing famine, which has been exacerbated by
 the periodic refusal of some of the combatants to
 allow relief shipments into famine-stricken areas.
 Famine has been particularly severe in southern
 Sudan and Ethiopia.

Said, Nuri al- (1888-1958), Iraqi officer, who saw
 service in the Turkish army during the early years
 of World War I and joined the 
ARAB REVOLT in
 1916, becoming 
FAISAL'S chief of staff and Iraqi
 chief of staff in 1921. During the 1920s he held
 several cabinet-level posts, and became prime
 minister in 1930; he then became Iraq's strong man.
 He was assassinated in the 1958 coup that toppled
 the monarchy of King Faisal II, and brought to
 power the republican government led by Abdul Karim
 
KASSEM. Faisal also was assassinated during the
 coup.

Saigon evacuation (Operation Frequent Wind; April
 1975), the evacuation of an estimated 7,000
 Americans and Vietnamese by air from Saigon as
 North Vietnamese troops approached the city. More
 than 2,000 were evacuated from the U.S. embassy
 near the center of Saigon.

Saint Christopher and Nevis, until 1967 British
 colonies, gaining internal autonomy in 1967 and
 becoming an independent state and 
COMMONWEALTH
 member on September 19, 1983.

St. Francis Dam collapse (March 13, 1928), the
 collapse of a California dam that cost an estimated
 450-700 lives and much property damage, because of
 the failure to evacuate those living in the Santa
 Clara valley.

Saint-Germain, Treaty of (September 10,1919), the
 Austrian peace treaty following World War I that
 dismembered Austria-Hungary, passing large
 territories to the new countries of Czechoslovakia,
 Poland, and Yugoslavia, and to Italy and Rumania.
 The treaty also provided for reparations and ended
 Hapsburg rule, with establishment of the Austrian
 republic.

St. Laurent, Louis Stephen (1882-1973), Canadian
 lawyer and president of the Canadian Bar
 Association, 1930-32, who joined 
MACKENZIE KING'S
 wartime cabinet as justice minister in 1941. He
 entered parliament as a Liberal in 1942, was
 minister of internal affairs, 1946-48, and was
 Canada's second French-Canadian prime minister,
 1948-58.

St. Lawrence Seaway, major Canadian-U.S. waterway
 that from 1959 connected the Atlantic Ocean with
 the Great Lakes, making it possible for large
 oceangoing ships to travel into the North American
 heartland. The seaway includes large hydroelectric
 power plants.

Saint Lucia, until 1967 a British colony. The
 island gained internal autonomy in 1967 and became
 an independent state and 
COMMONWEALTH member on
 February 22, 1979.

St.-Mihiel Offensive (September 12-16, 1918), World
 War I push in which U.S. and French forces attacked
 retreating German forces in the St.-Mihiel salient,
 cleared the salient, and prepared the way for the
 final Allied offensives of the war.

St. Roch, Canadian ship that was the first to sail
 west to wast along the 
NORTHWEST PASSAGE, north of
 North America, in 1940-42.

St. Valentine's Day Massacre (1929), the murder of
 seven people in Chicago on the orders of AL CAPONE
.

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, until 1967
 British colonies, gaining internal autonomy in 1969
 and becoming an independent state and
 
COMMONWEALTH member on October 27, 1979.

Saipan, Battle of (June-July 1944), World War II
 U.S. marine and army landings at the Pacific island
 of Saipan on June 15, following bombardment by a
 powerful fleet on its way to the Philippines. Very
 costly hand-to-hand fighting followed; although the
 Americans had captured the island's airfield within
 3 days and the outcome of the invasion was clear,
 the great majority of the Japanese defenders chose
 to fight to the death. Fighting ended July 9; by
 then an estimated 25,000-30,000 Japanese soldiers,
 sailors, and civilians had died. Some of them,
 including Japanese commanders Chuichi Nagumo and
 Jisaburo Ozawa, committed suicide when the end was
 near. There were over 16,000 American casualties,
 including more than 3,000 dead.

Sakharov, Andrei Dmitriyevich (1921-1989), leading
 Soviet nuclear physicist, a key figure in
 developing the U.S.S.R.'s 
HYDROGEN BOMB, who
 became a world figure as a democratic dissenter
 within the Soviet Union during the 1960s, winning
 the 1975 Nobel Peace Prize for his continuing work
 on behalf of human rights. He was not allowed to
 leave the country, and in 1980 he and his wife,
 Elena Bonner, were internally exiled by the Soviet
 government at Gorky. He was released from internal
 exile and allowed to travel abroad during the
 
GORBACHEV era, then choosing to remain in the
 Soviet Union and continue his fight to bring
 democracy to Soviet society, even winning political
 office.

Salad Oil fraud, an early 1960s U.S. fraud
 developed by commodity-futures buyer Anthony (Tino)
 De Angelis, who supplied false warehouse receipts
 for stored salad oil that did not exist; the
 receipts were then used by their recipients as
 collateral for massive loans. After his Allied
 Corporation went bankrupt in 1963, the fraud was
 discovered, with resultant losses to others of
 $150-200 million and further losses of $15-20
 million to commodities brokers with whom De Angelis
 had purchased futures on margin. De Angelis was
 later convicted and imprisoned.

Salan, Raoul Albin Louis (1899- ), French officer,
 who saw service in World War II and Indochina and
 was Algerian commander-in-chief when Charles 
DE
 
GAULLE took power in France in 1958. He opposed
 Algerian independence, but during 1958-59 he was
 stationed in Paris by De Gaulle, which removed him
 from direct command in Algeria. However, that did
 not stop him from organizing the unsuccessful 1961
 French officers' revolt in Algeria and the 
SECRET
 
ARMY ORGANIZATION (OAS), which for a time attempted
 to organize an insurrection in France. He was later
 sentenced to life imprisonment but was released in
 the June 1968 amnesty.

Salang Tunnel disaster (November 2, 1982), death of
 at least 700 people during the 
AFGHAN CIVIL WAR,
 when a motorized army convoy moving through the
 Salang Tunnel in Afghanistan suffered a fuel truck
 explosion, subsequent fire, and dense, killing
 smoke.

Salazar, Antonio de Oliviera (1889-1970),
 Portuguese economist who became finance minister in
 the 1928 military government and prime minister,
 1932-68, ruling for 36 years as the fascist
 dictator of a corporate state on the Italian model.
 He supported Francisco 
FRANCO during the SPANISH
 
CIVIL WAR and German and Italian fascism as well,
 although keeping his country out of World War II.
 He brought Portugal into the 
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY
 
ORGANIZATION (NATO) in 1949, and strongly resisted
 colonial independence movements throughout his
 tenure.

Salerno railroad disaster (March 2, 1944),
 suffocation of an estimated 500 passengers by
 carbon monoxide fumes when an overloaded train
 carrying sleeping passengers stalled in a railroad
 tunnel near Salerno, Italy.

Salk, Jonas Edward (1914- ), U.S. physician and
 medical researcher, who in 1952 developed the first
 
POLIO VACCINE against poliomyelitis, or infantile
 paralysis. It was introduced experimentally the
 following year and on a large scale in 1954 and
 proved immediately effective, though later it was
 largely replaced by Albert 
SABIN's polio vaccine.
 Salk's early work with influenza 
VIRUSES resulted
 also in a flu vaccine in 1953. Later he devoted
 himself to searching for a vaccine against
 
CANCER.

Salk vaccine, killed-virus 
POLIO VACCINE
 developed in 1952 by Jonas 
SALK.

SALT I, the media-developed name for the 
STRATEGIC
 
ARMS LIMITATION AGREEMENTS of 1972.

SALT II, the media-developed name for the
 
STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION AGREEMENT of 1979.

Salyut, series of U.S.S.R. space stations, with the
 
SOYUZ spacecraft being used to ferry astronauts
 back and forth from Earth; later replaced by the
 Mir permanently manned station. Salyut 1 received
 three astronauts from Soyuz 10 on April 24, 1971,
 becoming the world's first space station. The first
 crew change in space occurred in 1985 with Salyut
 7.

Sambre River, Battle of (August 22-23, 1914), one
 of the World War I Battles of the 
FRONTIERS, in
 which German forces sweeping south and west through
 Belgium pushed back French forces on the Sambre
 River.

Samuelson, Paul Anthony (1915- ), U.S. economist
 and econometrician, whose textbook Economics was by
 far the most widely used college economics text in
 the world. He was a Keynesian who refined and
 applied 
KEYNES's work to the post-World War II
 world, making a substantial and diverse body of
 contributions to economic theory. He received the
 Nobel Prize in Economics in 1970.

Samuelson, Victor E., U.S. Exxon company executive
 kidnapped on December 6, 1973, by guerrillas in
 Campana, Argentina, and later freed after Exxon
 paid a record $14.2 million ransom.

Sandinistas (Sandinist National Liberation Front),
 the governing party in Nicaragua, named after
 Nicaraguan guerilla martyr Cesar Augusto 
SANDINO;
 it began as a Cuban-supported guerrilla group in
 the early 1960s, mounted a low-level guerrilla
 insurgency against the 
SOMOZA government that
 grew into the 
NICARAGUAN CIVIL WAR, and took
 power in July 1979, then fighting a long continuing
 war against the insurgent 
CONTRAS. The
 Sandinistas were defeated in the peaceful,
 democratic elections of February 1990.

Sandino, Cesar Augusto (1893-1934), Nicaraguan
 guerrilla general, a Liberal leader during the
 Liberal-Conservative fighting of 1926-27, in which
 the U.S. intervened on the side of the
 Conservatives. His forces withdrew to the mountains
 after the truce of 1927, continuing to fight both
 U.S. Marine occupation forces and the government,
 until U.S. forces withdrew in 1933. He was murdered
 in 1934 by the forces of Anastasio 
SOMOZA, then
 head of the National Guard, while discussing peace
 terms. He became a martyr and guerrilla hero
 throughout Latin America; the Nicaraguan
 
SANDINISTA movement was inspired by his example
 and took its name from his.

San Francisco Conference (April-June 1945), the
 large international meeting that established the
 
UNITED NATIONS. The United Nations Charter was
 signed by the 51 original members of the
 organization on June 26, 1945, and became effective
 on October 24.

San Francisco earthquakes On April 18, 1906, a
 California San Andreas Fault earthquake leveled
 most of the city and its surrounding areas, causing
 an estimated 700-800 deaths and $300-400 million in
 property damage. On October 17, 1989, San
 Francisco's second major earthquake of the century,
 measuring 6.7 on the 
RICHTER scale, caused an
 estimated 62 deaths, 2,000 injuries, and several
 billion dollars of property damage, in an extended
 area centered at Hollister, 80 miles southeast of
 San Francisco. An estimated 42 died in the collapse
 of a section of the Nimitz Freeway; part of the Bay
 Bridge also collapsed.

Sanger, Margaret Higgins (1883-1966), U.S. nurse
 who became an advocate of birth control while
 handling maternity cases, many of them involving
 self-induced abortions, on Manhattan's Lower East
 Side. She founded the National Birth Control League
 in 1914, coining the term "birth control" in that
 year, and organized the first American 
BIRTH
 
CONTROL CLINIC in 1916, in the Brownsville section
 of Brooklyn. She was arrested in 1917, her case
 generating a landmark New York State court decision
 that first made it possible for doctors to legally
 supply birth control advice to patients. In 1921
 she founded the American Birth Control League,
 which later became the Planned Parenthood
 Federation; she was president of the International
 Planned Parenthood Federation.

Sao Tome and Principe, until 1975, Portuguese
 colonies; the islands achieved independence on July
 12, 1975, after several years of low-level
 insurgency, as part of general Portuguese colonial
 divestiture at that time.

Sarajevo, Bosnian city, now in Yugoslavia, in which
 Archduke 
FRANCIS FERDINAND, heir to the
 Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife were
 assassinated on June 28, 1914, by Bosnian
 nationalists trained and equipped by the 
BLACK
 
HAND, a Serbian secret society. Austria-Hungary
 soon went to war against Serbia; Russia declared
 war on Austria-Hungary; and within days both sets
 of great powers in Europe had begun World War I.

Sarikamish, Battle of (January 1-3, 1915), World
 War I battle in which invading Turks were defeated
 by Russian forces in the Caucasus, with
 approximately 30,000 dead and 30,000 other
 casualties, including desertions, out of an
 attacking force of 80,000.

Sarney Costa, Jose (1930- ), Brazilian lawyer and
 political leader, who held a series of Maranhao
 state and national positions 1956-85 and was a
 Liberal Party leader when elected to the
 vice-presidency in January 1985. He became
 president on April 22, 1985, after the death of
 President-elect Tancredo de Almeida Neves, and was
 elected to the presidency in June 1988. His term
 expired in March 1990 after 5 years in office;
 succeeding Brazilian presidents were to serve
 5-year terms.

Sarnoff, David (1891-1971), Russian-American
 engineer and executive, who rose at the Radio
 Corporation of America (RCA) to become its
 chairman, helping shape the development of 
RADIO
 and 
TELEVISION. Sarnoff came to public attention
 in 1912 when he was the first to pick up the
 Titanic's distress signals, reporting for 72 hours
 on the sinking and rescue efforts. By 1921 he was
 general manager of RCA, where he made the key early
 decisions to manufacture radio sets and to
 establish the National Broadcasting Company (NBC)
 as a programming arm. Later in the decade he hired
 Vladimir 
ZWORYKIN and gave him the funds to make
 the first practical, all-electronic television in
 1932, backing the manufacture of black-and-white
 sets in the 1930s and color sets and color
 transmission in the late 1940s, at every step ahead
 of his competitors.

Sartre, Jean Paul (1905-80), French philosopher and
 writer who, during the early post-World War II
 period, popularized the concept of 
EXISTENTIALISM,
 a theory of personal freedom positing that life has
 no meaning beyond direct personal engagement and
 commitment based on personal experience, free of
 the limiting influences of society. He refused the
 1964 Nobel Prize for Literature as an expression of
 his existential beliefs. In political matters Sartre
 was a person of the French Left, later moving
 toward Marxism, and attempting, without great
 success, to merge Marxism and existentialism. He
 was a lifetime companion of Simone de 
BEAUVOIR.

SATANIC VERSES, THE (1988), a novel by Salman
 
RUSHDIE that generated protests from many Moslems
 throughout the world, especially from Islamic
 fundamentalists, for its treatment of Mohammed,
 Abraham, Mohammed's wives, the Koran, and other
 aspects of the Islamic faith. In January 1989 the
 book was publicly burned in Bradford, England, and
 there were violent fundamentalist-inspired
 demonstrations in India and Pakistan on February 12
 and 13, resulting in at least nine deaths. On
 February 14 Iranian Ayatollah Ruhollah 
KHOMEINI
 called for Rushdie's murder, offering a $1 million
 reward to his murderer. Subsequently, Khomeini,
 other Iranians, and several Islamic terrorist
 groups in other countries called for the murder of
 many connected with the publication of the book,
 including the employees of its publisher, Viking
 Penguin. Many Moslem countries subsequently banned
 the book, as did South Africa. Bookstore bombings
 occurred in several Western cities, including Los
 Angeles and London, and there were many threats of
 bombings elsewhere. But even in the Moslem world,
 where the book and its author were widely attacked,
 the Khomeini call to murder was little supported
 outside the fundamentalist groupings. And in the
 Western world, the reaction was immense. Viking
 Penguin stood firm and continued to publish and
 reprint the book. Great Britain condemned
 Khomeini's action and broke newly normalized
 relations with Iran. France, Canada, the Vatican,
 and a score of other countries, including the
 entire 
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY (EC), also condemned
 Khomeini and his associates, the EC also breaking
 relations with Iran. The U.S. government was not as
 forthcoming on the issue, but it opposed the call
 to murder. Some American bookstore chains attempted
 to back away from distribution of the book but were
 forced to reconsider after a powerful
 anticensorship public and publishing community
 reaction. The book became an international
 best-seller; its author remained in hiding.

satellite, artificial, human-made craft launched
 into orbit from Earth, the first being the
 U.S.S.R.'s 
SPUTNIK in 1957. Many artificial
 satellites have been used as research stations;
 workhorse satellite series like 
EXPLORER and
 
PIONEER have been used, for example, to gather
 information on cosmic 
RADIATION. The American OSO
 (Orbiting Solar Observatory) satellites recorded
 solar data and transmitted them on command from
 1962. The first communications satellite (comsat),
 Echo, launched in August 1960, used "passive"
 reflection to transmit sounds and pictures; it was
 replaced by "active" satellites that received,
 amplified, and transmitted 
RADIO, TELEVISION, and
 telephone signals worldwide in a system called
 
INTELSAT (International Telecommunications
 Satellite Organization). The weather satellite
 
TIROS (Television and Infra-Red Observation
 Satellite), which first charted hurricanes in 1960,
 was superseded by more sophisticated meteorological
 satellite systems such as Nimbus. Navigational
 satellites helped ships and airplanes pinpoint
 their positions; others were dedicated to military
 surveillance, such as the Amerian 
MIDAS (
Missile
 
Defense 
Alert 
System) and 
VELA HOTEL, aimed at
 detecting nuclear explosions.

Sato, Eisaku (1901-75), Japanese government
 official, brother of Nobusuki 
KISHI, who held
 transportation ministry positions before and during
 World War II and went on to hold several
 cabinet-level posts in the postwar period. He was
 prime minister 1964-72, a period in which Japan
 gained massive economic strength. During his tenure
 Japan also regained Okinawa, the rest of the
 southern Ryuku Islands, and the Bonin Islands. He
 was, with Sean 
MACBRIDE, co-recipient of the 1974
 Nobel Peace Prize for his work on and signing of
 the 
NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY of 1968.

Saturday night massacre (October 20, 1973), a key
 event in the 
WATERGATE scandal, in which U.S.
 president Richard M. 
NIXON attempted to resist
 exposure by the content of the Watergate tapes by
 firing Special Prosecutor Archibald 
COX and
 Deputy Attorney-General William Ruckelshaus;
 instead he entirely destroyed his own credibility
 and remaining public support.

Saturn, planetary target of space probes, most
 notably the U.S. Pioneer 11 spacecraft, which flew
 by in 1979 and discovered previously unknown moons,
 and the U.S. Voyager 1 and 2, which sent back
 striking pictures of Saturn's rings and found more
 moons.

satyagraha, the philosophy and form of nonviolent
 resistance developed by Mahatma 
GANDHI, which
 stressed civil disobedience without anger and with
 full acceptance of all penalties. It was first used
 by Gandhi during the South African Indian campaign
 for civil and political rights, 1906-13, and then
 used by him as a powerful weapon during the long
 campaign for Indian independence that ended in
 1947.

Saudi Arabia (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia), nation
 established by the forces of Ibn 
SAUD during the
 30-year period 1902-32. Before and during World War
 I he took control of several portions of Arabia
 formerly dominated by the Ottoman Empire; in the
 1920s his forces defeated those of 
HUSSEIN Ibn
 Ali; and in the 1930s he consolidated power,
 formally establishing the Saudi Arabian kingdom on
 September 23, 1932.

Savannah River nuclear plant, the U.S. nuclear
 weapons fuel production plant at Savannah River,
 South Carolina, that-it was disclosed in October
 1988-had for 31 years experienced a series of very
 substantial problems endangering the health and
 safety of its employees and of hundreds of
 thousands in the surrounding area. These included
 fuel rod and potential core meltdowns, 
RADIATION
 exposures, and widespread plant contamination. A
 congressional committee hearing indicated that the
 U.S. government had secretly and knowingly
 concealed these problems, although the plant's
 operator, E. I. Dupont de Nemours & Co, had
 repeatedly reported problems and incidents as they
 occurred. It appeared to be part of a pattern of
 secrecy and breakdown throughout the U.S. nuclear
 weapons production system.

Savimbi, Jonas (1934- ), Angolan nationalist,
 founder of the 
NATIONAL UNION FOR THE TOTAL

 INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA (UNITA) in 1966 and leader
 of UNITA through the 1961-74 
ANGOLAN WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE and the long civil war that followed.


savings and loan bailouts, major U.S. government
 expenditures aimed at meeting government deposit
 guarantees and preserving financial stability, as
 hundreds of savings and loan associations were
 found to be insolvent. Tens of billions of dollars
 had been spent by early 1990; total government
 costs in the $100-200 billion range were
 anticipated.

Say it ain't so, Joe, the lament of baseball fans
 in 1919 after the 
BLACK SOX SCANDAL broke,
 directed at the great Chicago White Sox outfielder
 "Shoeless Joe" Jackson, since then a taunt directed
 at those accused of betraying the trust of others.


Scalia, Antonin (1936- ), U.S. lawyer, law
 professor 1967-74 and 1977-82; assistant attorney
 general in the Justice Department Office of Legal
 Counsel, 1973-77; and U.S. Court of Appeals judge,
 1982-86. He was appointed an associate justice of
 the Supreme Court by President Ronald 
REAGAN in
 1986, the youngest and thought to be one of the
 most conservative members of the Court.

Scarsdale Diet murder (March 10, 1980), the murder
 of Dr. Herman Tarnower, the cardiologist who had
 developed the Scarsdale Diet, by Virginia private
 school headmistress Jean Harris in a lovers'
 quarrel. It was followed by one of the most highly
 publicized trials of the time, and the imprisonment
 of Harris for second-degree murder.

Schacht, Hjalmar Horace Greeley (1877-1970),
 American-born German banker who became a key
 financial planner and head of the Reichsbank
 (1923-29) during the 
WEIMAR REPUBLIC period. He
 was Nazi Reichsbank president, 1933-39, and a Nazi
 cabinet minister, 1934-37. However, he opposed
 
HITLER's war plans and was sent to 
DACHAU
 concentration camp in 1944. He was accused of war
 crimes but acquitted at the 
NUREMBERG TRIALS in
 1946; released by the German courts in 1946, he
 became a banker again in West Germany.

Schecter Poultry Corporation v. United States
 (1935), a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision
 invalidating the 
NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACT
 (NIRA), a major piece of 
NEW DEAL legislation.

Schenck v. United States (1919), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision, affirming the conviction of
 a socialist antiwar protester under the Sedition
 Act for sending out antiwar leaflets. Justice
 Oliver Wendell Holmes enunciated the "clear and
 present danger" doctrine. The unanimous Court
 decision was part of the post-World War I 
RED

 SCARE that also generated the 
PALMER RAIDS.

Schick test, skin test developed in 1913 by
 Hungarian-American physician Bela Schick to
 indicate susceptibility to diphtheria, a widespread
 and much-feared childhood disease in the days
 before 
ANTIBIOTICS. If no redness or swelling
 appeared on the skin at the site of a small
 injection of diphtheria toxin, a child was known to
 be immune and did not have take the full injection,
 which could have serious side effects.

Schirach, Baldur von (1907-74), an early Nazi who
 became a youth activist and was head of the Hitler
 Youth organization from 1933. He was convicted of
 war crimes at the 
NUREMBERG TRIALS and imprisoned
 for 20 years.

Schleicher, Kurt von (1882-1934), German army
 officer who represented army interests throughout
 the 
WEIMAR REPUBLIC period and was briefly German
 chancellor before 
HITLER took power. He was
 killed by the Nazis on June 30, 1934, during the
 
BLOOD PURGE.

Schlieffen Plan, the main German strategic plan for
 World War I, developed by General Alfred von
 Schlieffen; it envisaged a two-front war in which
 the main body of German army would first defeat
 France, while small forces engaged in a holding
 action against Russia, and then turn toward the
 Russians. The Germans followed the plan but with
 ultimately disastrous modifications, in their
 attempt to pull the French army forward and then
 drive around it to the sea through Belgium and the
 Netherlands in 1914.

Schmidt, Helmut Heinrich Waldemar (1918- ), West
 German political leader who served in the German
 army during World War II, became active in the
 Social Democratic party in 1946, and entered the
 federal parliament in 1953. He then held a
 succession of party and administrative positions,
 becoming defense minister, 1969-72, and finance
 minister, 1972-74; he succeeded Willy 
BRANDT as
 chancellor, 1974-82. As chancellor he continued
 Brandt's policies of 
DETENTE with the Soviet bloc
 to some extent, supported nuclear armament
 negotiations and full development of the 
EUROPEAN

 COMMUNITY, and moved somewhat closer to the United
 States in military matters.

Schneiderman, Rose (1882-1972), U.S. labor leader,
 an early organizer of the International Ladies
 Garment Workers Union (ILGWU) and the Women's Trade
 Union League. She was a labor adviser to President
 Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT during the 
GREAT

 DEPRESSION.

Schrank, John N. (1876-1943), would-be assassin who
 shot and wounded Theodore 
ROOSEVELT in Milwaukee,
 Wisconsin, on October 14, 1912. Roosevelt was
 seriously wounded; Schrank was immediately
 captured, declared insane, and institutionalized
 for the rest of his life.

Schrodinger, Erwin (1887-1961), Austrian physicist
 who, inspired by Louis 
DE BROGLIE's work on
 
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY, developed the Schrodinger
 wave equation in 1926 to describe the wavelike
 behavior of fundamental particles; his work formed
 part of the mathematical underpinning for 
QUANTUM

 THEORY. He shared the 1933 Nobel Prize for Physics
 with Paul 
DIRAC, that same year leaving Berlin
 and later Austria in opposition to the Nazis. He
 worked at the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
 with Dirac, 1940-56. His 1944 work, What Is Life?,
 outlined how a set of chemical codes might
 determine genetic inheritance, inspiring the work
 of James 
WATSON and Francis 
CRICK in
 discovering the structure of 
DNA.

Schuman Plan, a 1950 proposal by French foreign
 minister Robert Schuman to establish a European
 common market for coal and steel, which was the
 inspiration for the formation of the 
EUROPEAN COAL

 AND STEEL COMMUNITY (ECSC) and later the 
EUROPEAN

 ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EEC), or 
COMMON MARKET, and
 the 
EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY (EURATOM),
 the three component parts of the 
EUROPEAN

 COMMUNITY (EC).

Schuschnigg, Kurt von (1897-1977), Austrian lawyer
 and politican who was a member of the cabinet of
 Engelbert 
DOLLFUSS in 1932 and became chancellor
 after the assassination of Dollfuss in 1934.
 Earlier in 1934 Schuschnigg had joined Dollfuss in
 creating the Austrian dictatorship, and in the
 forcible repression of the protests that followed.
 As chancellor he continued the dictatorship,
 attempted and failed to resist German annexation,
 and stepped down. He was later jailed by the
 Germans; after the war he taught in the United
 States.

Schwab, Charles Michael (1862-1939), U.S. steel
 industry executive who joined the Carnegie Steel
 Company as a laborer, became its president in 1897,
 was chief negotiator of the Carnegie sale to J. P.
 
MORGAN'S new United States Steel Company in 1901
 and was first president of the new company, then
 the largest industrial company in the world.
 Starting in 1903, he developed his own Bethlehem
 Steel Company into the second largest U.S. steel
 company and ultimately became a major
 industrialist, though financial reverses later in
 his life caused him to lose his fortune.

Schweitzer, Albert (1875-1965), German physician,
 philosopher, writer, and musician, who left his
 career as a renowned organist in 1913, became a
 medical missionary, and spent most of his long life
 operating his hospital and leper colony at
 Lambarene, in Gabon. He was awarded the 1952 Nobel
 Peace Prize for his work and became one of the most
 highly regarded humanitarians of his time.

Schwerner, Michael, young civil rights worker who,
 with James 
CHENEY and Andrew 
GOODMAN, was
 murdered in Neshoba County, Mississippi, in June
 1964, in the 
MISSISSIPPI CIVIL RIGHTS MURDERS.

SCLC, the initials of the 
SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN

 LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE, a leading organization of
 the 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT of the 1960s.

Scopes trial, popularly called the "monkey trial,"
 in which biology teacher John T. Scopes of Dayton,
 Tennessee, was tried for teaching evolution rather
 than the literal interpretation of the Bible
 prescribed by Tennessee law. The 1925 trial
 attracted worldwide media attention; one of the
 reporters present was H. L. Mencken. Clarence
 
DARROW led the Scopes defense, and William
 Jennings 
BRYAN led the prosecution. Although
 Bryan won a minor conviction and fine, later
 reversed by a higher court, he was much overmatched
 by Darrow in the courtroom and was treated
 unmercifully by the media. Bryan soon became ill,
 and died 5 days after the trial. The Tennessee law
 in question was repealed in 1967, though supporters
 of 
CREATIONISM continued to fight the teaching of
 evolution in the schools. The 1960 film Inherit the
 Wind was a fictional re-creation of the Scopes
 trial.

Scorpion sinking (May 21, 1968), the disappearance
 of the U.S. nuclear submarine Scorpion in the
 Atlantic, with the loss of its entire crew of 99.
 The last message from the ship was information
 about its position, about 250 miles off the Azores,
 without any trouble report.

Scott, Robert Falcon (1868-1912), British explorer
 who led the second party to reach the 
SOUTH POLE.
 After 1901-04 explorations in the Antarctic with
 the British Royal Navy, he set out for the South
 Pole in 1910, reaching it on January 17, 1912, only
 to find that Roald 
AMUNDSEN had been there before
 him, on December 14, 1911. On their return to camp
 Scott and his party died in a blizzard; their
 remains and records were found months later.

Scottsboro case, conviction of nine young Black men
 for allegedly raping two young White women aboard a
 freight train in Alabama in March 1931. Eight were
 sentenced to death, and one, a 13-year-old, to life
 imprisonment-all on tainted evidence, by a
 demonstrably prejudiced judge and jury in an
 atmosphere that precluded the possibility of a fair
 trial, and without adequate counsel. A major civil
 rights protest ensued, and attorney Samuel S.
 Liebowitz became lawyer for the defendants. The
 Supreme Court reversed two successive convictions
 but ultimately let five convictions stand, with
 long jail sentences. All but Haywood Patterson were
 ultimately paroled; he escaped from jail in 1948,
 was later imprisoned for another crime, and died in
 jail in 1952. Defendant Clarence Willie Norris, who
 had violated the terms of his parole by leaving
 Alabama in 1946, was pardoned in 1977.

Scowcroft, Brent (1925- ), U.S. Air Force Officer,
 who held a series of staff and teaching positions,
 1947-68; moved into staff national security
 positions in the defense department, 1968-71; and
 became a military aide to president Richard M.
 
NIXON, 1971-72. In 1972 he became White House
 assistant to the president for national security
 affairs, under Henry 
KISSINGER, and was National
 Security Council head during the 
FORD
 administration, continuing to work on arms control
 matters during the 
CARTER administration. In 1986
 he was appointed to the 
TOWER COMMISSION and
 joined in its sharp criticism of 
REAGAN
 administration involvement in the 
IRAN-CONTRA

 AFFAIR. On November 23, 1988, Scowcroft was named
 national security advisor by President-elect George
 
BUSH.

scuba (
Self-
Contained 
Underwater 
Breathing
 
Apparatus), underwater breathing apparatus,
 formally called the Aqualung, developed in 1943 by
 Jacques 
COUSTEAU and Emil Gagnan.

SDI, the initials of the U.S. 
STRATEGIC DEFENSE

 INITIATIVE (Star Wars).

SDS, popular shorthand for 
STUDENTS FOR A

 DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY, by which that organization,
 founded in 1960, is best known.

Seabed Non-nuclearization Treaty (1971), a
 U.S.-U.S.S.R. agreement not to place nuclear
 weapons on or under the ocean floor.

Seaborg, Glenn Theodore (1912- ), U.S. nuclear
 chemist who in 1940, with Edwin M. McMillan, first
 discovered the element 
PLUTONIUM. During World
 War II he worked with the 
MANHATTAN PROJECT,
 producing the plutonium used in the first 
ATOMIC

 BOMB, tested at 
ALAMOGORDO, New Mexico, in July
 1945, and in the second atomic bomb used in
 warfare, dropped on 
NAGASAKI, Japan, in August
 1945. After the war he resumed his research on
 elements, discovering eight more by bombarding
 
URANIUM in a 
CYCLOTRON, work for which he
 shared with McMillan the 1951 Nobel Prize for
 Chemistry. A strong proponent of 
NUCLEAR ENERGY,
 Seaborg was later chairman of the U.S. 
ATOMIC

 ENERGY COMMISSION (AEC).

Seale, Bobby (1937-1989), U.S. Black activist of
 the 1960s, a founder of the 
BLACK PANTHER PARTY
 in 1966.

Sea Lion, Operation, the German code name for the
 plan to invade Britain in 1940, which required air
 supremacy and the neutralization of the British
 navy by the German air force, followed by a
 large-scale amphibious invasion of Britain. It was
 frustrated by the victory of the British air force
 in the Battle of 
BRITAIN, which made the rest
 impossible.

SEATO, the initials of the 
SOUTHEAST ASIA TREATY

 ORGANIZATION.

Second Arab-Israeli War (October 29-November 6,
 1956), an alternate name for the 
SINAI-SUEZ WAR.


Second Balkan War (1913), the second of the two
 
BALKAN WARS, in which Bulgaria was defeated by
 Serbia, Greece, Rumania, and Turkey; part of the
 run-up to World War I.

Second International, the international
 organization of the world's socialist parties, from
 its foundation in 1889 until its split over
 participation in World War I. Before the war it had
 pledged itself to call on its members not to
 participate, should a war come; but when war came
 in 1914, the great majority of the member parties
 and unions chose to support the war efforts of
 their countries. It was split irrevocably in 1919
 when 
LENIN organized the 
COMMUNIST

 INTERNATIONAL and was succeeded first by the Labor
 and Socialist International of the interwar period
 and then by the Socialist International of the
 postwar period, which is still in being.

Second Vatican Council, the formal title of
 
VATICAN II, the most important Catholic Church
 meeting of the 20th century and probably of the
 preceding several centuries as well.

Second World War (1939-45), alternate name for
 
WORLD WAR II.

Secord, Richard V., retired U.S. general who, with
 his partner, Albert 
HAKIM, became a figure in the
 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR, allegedly being deeply
 involved in the arms-for-hostages and Nicaraguan
 
CONTRA arms supply arrangements. In March 1988 he
 was indicted in connection with the scandal, in May
 1989 was indicted on several other related charges,
 and early in 1990 settled outstanding charges with
 minor penalties.

Secret Army Organization (OAS), Algerian French
 terrorist organization, led by general Raoul
 
SALAN, which from April 1961 mounted a
 substantial series of terrorist attacks against
 Algerian Moslems, usually with the tacit approval
 of French army forces in the region.
 Simultaneously, the OAS developed a terrorist
 campaign against the French government, aiming to
 reverse
 DE GAULLE's Algerian independence policy.
 Both terrorist campaigns failed; Salan was
 sentenced to life imprisonment but was released
 during the 1968 amnesty.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), a U.S.
 
NEW DEAL agency established by the securities
 laws of 1933 and 1934, which together provided for
 registration of the stock exchanges and regulation
 of new securities issues. The legislation gave the
 SEC broad regulatory powers, in an attempt to curb
 the manipulative practices that had helped lead to
 the 
CRASH of 1929. Its first chairman was Joseph
 P. 
KENNEDY; its second, William O. 
DOUGLAS. Its
 jurisdiction was later extended, but by the 1980s
 it was severely limited, in the greatly altered
 worldwide financial industry that had by then
 emerged.

Sedition Act (1918), U. S. World War I law that,
 together with the Espionage Act of 1917, prohibited
 a wide range of antiwar activities, including free
 speech. It was used as a witchhunting tool,
 primarily against socialists and other radicals,
 and also to bar from the mails and thereby damage
 or destroy antiwar foreign language and radical
 periodicals. More than 1,500 people were prosecuted
 under these laws; one of them was Socialist leader
 Eugene V. 
DEBS, imprisoned for an antiwar speech
 and jailed for 32 months of a 10-year sentence
 until pardoned by President Warren G. 
HARDING. In
 a mass trial of 100 leaders of the 
INDUSTRIAL

 WORKERS OF THE WORLD (IWW) all were found guilty;
 15 were sentenced to 20-year prison terms, 35 to
 10-year terms, and 50 to shorter terms, all with
 heavy fines.

Selma marches (March 1965), two civil rights
 marches from Selma to Mongomery, the state capital
 of Alabama, both led by Martin Luther 
KING, JR..
 On March 7 some 500 marchers were attacked, beaten,
 and gassed by Alabama state troopers in an action
 condemned by civil rights activists and
 sympathizers throughout the United States, who then
 traveled to Selma in considerable numbers to join
 in subsequent marches. On March 9 a much larger
 march was stopped by court order. On that day civil
 rights activist and Boston Unitarian minister James
 
REEB was beaten by racists in Selma; he died on
 March 11. On March 17 a court-permitted
 Selma-to-Montgomery march began, led by King and
 Ralph 
BUNCHE; on March 21 it was completed as a
 march and demonstration of 25,000 in Montgomery, in
 which most of the leading Black figures and many of
 the leading white leaders of the time participated.


Semple, Ellen Churchill (1863-1932), U.S.
 geographer and influential academic, who focused on
 the ways in which the land and environment help
 shape human settlements and culture, as in her
 Geography of the Mediterranean Region: Its Relation
 to Ancient History (1931).

Sendero Luminoso, alternate name for the Peruvian
 
SHINING PATH guerrilla army.

Senegal (Republic of Senegal), until 1960 a region
 under French control, as a colony from 1895. It was
 granted internal autonomy in 1958, joined Mali in
 the Federation of Mali in 1959, became independent
 as part of the federation on June 20, 1960, and
 established itself as a separate nation on
 September 5, 1960. The major leader of the
 Senegalese independence movement was poet Leopold
 
SENGHOR, who became first president of the new
 country, remaining in the presidency until 1980. On
 February 1, 1982, Senegal joined Gambia in the
 confederation of 
SENEGAMBIA.

Senegambia (Confederation of Senegambia), the
 February 1, 1982, merger of the neighboring states
 of 
SENEGAL and much smaller 
GAMBIA, which by
 the late 1980s had not actually been realized.

Senghor, Leopold Sedar (1906- ), Senegalese poet,
 Africanist, Socialist, and political leader, who
 was a pioneer African poet in the 1930s and became
 leader of the Senegalese national movement after
 World War II. Senghor served in the French national
 assembly 1946-58, founded the Senegalese
 Progressive Union in 1949, and became president of
 the Repubic of Senegal in August 1960. He was
 president for 20 years, stepping down voluntarily
 in 1980 after his election to a fourth 5-year term
 in 1978. During his presidency Senegal was
 nonaligned but also continued to be closely
 associated with France, leaning west rather than
 east. After an attempted opposition coup in 1962
 Senghor presided over a one-party state. He moved
 toward limited democracy during the 1970s, a
 movement continued by his successors during the
 early 1980s, but with increasing hesitation as
 economic and political problems developed.

Separate educational facilities are inherently
 unequal, judgment by U.S. Supreme Court Chief
 Justice Earl 
WARREN in his landmark opinion
 (1954) on school desegregation, in the case of
 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.

Serbia, an independent kingdom at the beginning of
 the 20th century; Serbian nationalism and
 opposition to Austria helped generate the recurrent
 Balkan crises leading to both the first and second
 
BALKAN WARS, and to the June 1914 assassinations
 of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife
 at 
SARAJEVO that precipitated World War I. Serbia
 became part of Yugoslavia after World War I, was
 occupied by German troops during World War II, and
 became part of Yugoslavia again after World War II.


Serbia, Fall of (autumn 1915), successful World War
 I invasion of Serbia by German, Austrian, and
 Bulgarian forces, who attacked on October 6, 1915,
 smashed the much smaller Serbian army, and drove to
 the Adriatic, occupying Serbia and then Montenegro.


Sessions, William Steele (1930- ), U.S. lawyer, in
 the Justice Department 1969-71, West Texas U.S.
 attorney 1971-74, and federal district judge in
 Texas 1974-87. In November 1987 he became director
 of the 
FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION (FBI).

SETI (
Search for 
Extra
Terrestrial
 
Intelligence), project that involved scanning the
 sky with 
RADIO telescopes for messages from outer
 space and sending messages to other possible beings
 in the universe. The project centered in the 1970s
 at Arecibo, Puerto Rico, and after that was
 conducted at several international sites,
 especially from 1983.

Sevastopol, Battles of (June-July 1942), World War
 II engagements in the Crimea as German forces
 resumed their southern offensive in the spring of
 1942. By early June they besieged Sevastopol, which
 fell on July 2, 1942, with heavy Soviet losses. The
 city was retaken by Soviet forces in May 1944, most
 of its German garrison being evacuated by sea.

Seveso pesticide disaster, 1976 accident at a
 Seveso, Italy, pesticide plant when a cloud of
 toxic gas, heavily laden with 
DIOXIN, was spilled
 over the region, killing many animals but-at least
 immediately-no humans, though all were moved from
 the area.

sex change, use of 
HORMONES and operations to
 change one's sex, one of the first to have done so
 being Christine (ne George) 
JORGENSON in 1952.

Seychelles (Republic of Seychelles), until 1976 a
 British colony, with some internal autonomy since
 1967. It became an independent state and
 
COMMONWEALTH member on June 29, 1976, and a
 one-party state in 1977, after the coup that
 brought President France Albert Rene to power.

Shackleton, Ernest Henry (1874-1922), British
 explorer who made four expeditions to the
 Antarctic. Forced by sickness to leave the first,
 1901-04, with Robert 
SCOTT, he returned
 (1907-1909) to discover Mt. Erebus and approach to
 within 100 miles of the 
SOUTH POLE. In 1915,
 after his ship was crushed by ice, he led a
 dramatic 800-mile journey to a remote whaling
 station on South Georgia Island, where on a later
 trip he died and was buried.

Shamir, Yitzhak (Yitzhak Yzernitzsky; 1915- ),
 Polish-Israeli Zionist, who emigrated to Israel at
 the age of 20, there joining the terrorist 
IRGUN

 ZVAI LEUMI in 1937. He left the Irgun for the even
 more terrorist-oriented 
STERN GANG in 1940,
 became Stern Gang chief of operations in 1942, and
 in that capacity directed a substantial number of
 terrorist operations. He was an Israeli
 intelligence agent (1955-65), became a leader of
 the 
HERUT party (1970), was foreign minister in
 the 
BEGIN government (1980-83), and succeeded
 Begin as prime minister (1983-84). In 1984 he
 became coalition government foreign minister and
 from 1986 was Israeli prime minister.

Shanghai, Battle of (1932), the first Battle of
 Shanghai (January 28-March 8, 1932), which followed
 the 
MUKDEN INCIDENT, the Japanese annexation of
 Manchuria, and the China-wide boycotts of Japanese
 goods that followed. A substantial Japanese
 punitive expedition landed in Shanghai and was held
 on its beachheads by the Chinese 19th Route Army
 until breaking through Chinese positions late in
 February. Defeated, the Chinese called off their
 anti-Japanese boycotts, and the Japanese army
 withdrew.

Shanghai, Battle of (1937), the second Battle of
 Shanghai (August 8-November 8, 1937), one of the
 major early battles of the 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR.
 Invading Japanese troops were once again held by
 the Chinese in heavy fighting until heavy
 reinforcements and new landings forced the Chinese
 to retreat.

Shanghai Massacre (April 12, 1927), an attack by
 China's Nationalist forces led by 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK
 on Communist militia and labor organizations in
 Shanghai; 5,000-6,000 of these former allies were
 executed by Chiang's forces, as were Communists in
 several other cities, signaling the real beginning
 of the 22-year-long 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR. The event
 is graphically described, from the Communist point
 of view, in Andre Malraux's novel, Man's Fate, in
 which the central character is modeled after 
ZHOU

 ENLAI, who directed Communist forces in Shanghai
 at the time.

Shantung Question, the dispute over those
 provisions of the Treaty of 
VERSAILLES granting
 Germany's former concessions in the northeastern
 province of Shantung to Japan. The concessions
 aroused great opposition in China, generating the
 demonstrations of the 
MAY 4TH MOVEMENT, which
 played a major role in the further development of
 Chinese republican and revolutionary movements.

Shapiro v. Thompson (1969), a landmark U.S. Supreme
 Court decision striking down state residency
 requirements regarding welfare recipients, which
 made it possible for those qualifying for welfare
 under the laws of any jurisdiction to move there
 and receive welfare payments.

Shapley, Harlow (1885-1972), U.S. astronomer
 working at the Harvard Observatory who in 1918
 described the shape of the Milky Way, placing the
 Earth for the first time on the fringes of the
 galaxy. He was also noted for his work on Cepheid
 variables, showing that they are pulsating stars,
 and for his popular writings, such as 
THE VIEW

 FROM A DISTANT STAR (1964).

Sharon, Ariel (1928- ), Israeli officer, who saw
 service during the 
ISRAELI WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

 (FIRST ARAB-ISRAELI WAR) in 1948, conducted
 antiguerrilla operations during the mid-1950s, and
 was a paratroop commander during the 
SINAI-SUEZ

 WAR (SECOND ARAB-ISRAELI WAR). He commanded an
 armored divison during the 
SIX-DAY WAR (THIRD

 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR) of 1967 and again commanded an
 armored divison during the 
YOM KIPPUR WAR (FOURTH

 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR; OCTOBER WAR) of 1973. He became
 defense minister in 1981, was deeply involved in
 every major aspect of the 1982 Israeli invasion of
 Lebanon, and was forced to resign as defense
 minister after the 
SABRA AND SHATILLA MASSACRES,
 though remaining in the Israeli cabinet.

Sharpeville massacre (March 21, 1960), killing of
 67 people and wounding of approximately 200 more
 when South African police opened fire on unarmed
 demonstrators at Sharpeville, near Johannesburg.
 Subsequent protest demonstrations were violently
 repressed, and the government declared a
 countrywide state of emergency. The massacre
 generated worldwide condemnation and within a year
 had led to South Africa's withdrawal from the
 
COMMONWEALTH. The event also helped push the
 
AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS away from its
 traditional nonviolent commitment and toward armed
 action, helping initiate the long guerrilla war
 that followed, part of the ongoing destruction of
 South African society.

Shastri, Lal Bahadur (1904-66), Indian 
CONGRESS

 PARTY activist, who became general secretary of
 the party in 1951, served in Jawaharlal 
NEHRU'S
 cabinet during the 1950s and early 1960s, and
 succeeded Nehru as prime minister 1964-66. He died
 while negotiating the Tashkent peace talks that
 ended the 
INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR OF 1965.

Shaw, George Bernard (1856-1950), major literary
 and intellectual figure, who, with Beatrice 
WEBB
 and Sidney 
WEBB, provided much of the ideological
 focus for British socialism through their work in
 the 
FABIAN SOCIETY. Many of his plays, such as
 Pygmalion (1913), Heartbreak House (1920), Major
 Barbara (1905), and Misalliance (1910), became 20th
 century classics.

Shcharansky, Anatoly (1948- ), Soviet
 mathematician, who became a leading Jewish
 dissident during the 1970s. He was refused
 permission to leave the country, imprisoned in 1977
 on false espionage charges, and in 1986 released in
 a Soviet-American swap of alleged spies; he then
 emigrated to Israel.

Sheean, James Vincent (1899-1975), U.S. journalist,
 whose reportage from Africa and Eurasia during the
 interwar period illuminated some of the major
 continuing stories and events of the century. In
 the 1920s he reported on the 
RIF WAR, the early
 stages of the long Arab-Israeli conflict in what
 was then Palestine, on the beginning of the long
 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR, and on Mussolini's 
MARCH ON

 ROME. In the 1930s he reported on the 
SPANISH

 CIVIL WAR and the rise of fascism and in the 1940s
 on the assassination of Mohandas K. 
GANDHI.

Sheffield soccer stadium disaster (April 15, 1989),
 a panic causing 94 deaths and at least 169
 injuries, as thousands of football fans pushed into
 enclosed stands at Hillsboro, England, near
 Sheffield; many were crushed against steel crowd-
 control fences. It was the worst sports disaster in
 British history.

Shepard, Alan Bartlett, Jr. (1923- ), the first
 U.S. astronaut, who made a 15-minute suborbital
 flight in the 
MERCURY spacecraft Freedom 7 on May
 5, 1961, reaching a height of 116 miles.

Sheppard murder (July 4, 1954), the Cleveland,
 Ohio, murder of Marilyn Sheppard, whose husband,
 osteopath Samuel Sheppard, was 3 weeks later
 charged with the murder while a public campaign for
 his conviction was being conducted in the press.
 His trial attracted national attention; he was
 convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment,
 protesting his innocence. In 1964 he succeeded in
 reopening the case and was granted a new trial
 after an appeal that went to the U.S. Supreme
 Court, which agreed that his original trial had
 been conducted in an atmosphere that prevented a
 fair trial. He was acquitted on appeal; the murder
 was never solved.

Sherman, James Schoolcraft (1855-1912), U.S. lawyer
 and Republican congressman from New York
 (1887-1891, 1893-1909) who was Willam Howard
 
TAFT'S vice-president for one term (1909-12); he
 died while running for reelection in what became
 the losing Taft candidacy of 1912.

Shevardnadze, Eduard Amvroslyevich (1928- ), Soviet
 Communist party official, who first drew national
 attention in 1972 when he replaced the Georgian
 party leader, Vasilii Mzhavanadze, after leading a
 successful anticorruption campaign. He became a
 member of his party's Central Committee in 1976,
 and was Mikhail 
GORBACHEV'S surprise choice to
 replace Andrei 
GROMYKO as foreign minister in
 1985, initiating a new, seemingly far more relaxed
 era in Soviet foreign policy.

Shigumetsu, Mamoru (1887-1957), Japanese lawyer and
 diplomat who was foreign minister from 1943 to 1945
 with a brief break in mid-1945. He was a signatory
 to the Japanese surrender on the battleship
 Missouri, in Tokyo harbor, on September 2, 1945. He
 was later convicted of war crimes and imprisoned
 for 7 years. Paroled in 1950, he reentered the
 Japanese foreign office in 1954.

Shining Path (Luminous Path; Sendero Luminoso),
 Peruvian Maoist guerrilla army, from 1980 fighting
 mainly in southern Peru, though engaged in some
 bombings at Lima; although numbering less than
 5,000, an increasingly serious threat to the
 government in the late 1980s.

Shirer, William Lawrence (1904- ), U.S. journalist
 and broadcaster, who reported from Europe during
 the interwar period; his reportage and late-1930s
 CBS 
RADIO broadcasts helped to expose the nature
 and threat of the Nazi movement. His definitive
 Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (1960) built on
 his early experience.

Shockley, William Bradford (1910-1989),
 English-American physicist who, with John Bardeen
 and Walter Houser Brattain, developed the
 
TRANSISTOR and laid the basis for modern
 solid-state 
ELECTRONICS, winning them the 1956
 Nobel Prize for Physics. Shockley caused
 considerable controversy in later decades with his
 outspoken belief in the genetic inferiority of
 Blacks.

shock treatment, use of electrical stimulation or
 drugs to cause temporary loss of consciousness in
 mental patients. Vienna psychiatrist Manfred Sakel
 first used deliberately induced 
INSULIN shock to
 treat patients in 1933. Four years later Italian
 physicians Ugo Cerlutti and Lucio Bini developed
 the technique of administering controlled
 electrical shocks to mental patients, in what was
 called electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Both kinds
 of techniques were widely used over the next two
 decades, although serious questions were raised
 about their long-term aftereffects. Their use
 declined only after the development of
 
TRANQUILIZERS in the mid-1950s.

Shriver, Robert Sargent (1915- ), U.S. editor and
 writer, a brother-in-law of John F. 
KENNEDY, who
 worked in Kennedy's 1960 presidential campaign and
 became first director of the 
PEACE CORPS
 (1961-66), first director of the Office of Economic
 Opportunity (1964), and ambassador to France
 (1968-70). In 1972 he replaced Senator Thomas
 
EAGLETON as the Democratic vice-presidential
 candidate after Eagleton withdrew from the race. He
 unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential
 nomination in 1980 and later became a television
 newscaster.

Shroud of Turin, cloth in a Turin, Italy, church
 long believed by some to have covered the body of
 Jesus Christ after his crucifixion, but shown in
 1988, by 
RADIOCARBON DATING, to have been made
 during the 13th century.

Shultz, George Pratt (1920- ), U.S. economist
 active in industrial relations, who was labor
 secretary (1969-70), Office of Management and
 Budget director (1970-72), treasury secretary
 (1972-74), economic adviser to presidents
 
EISENHOWER and 
REAGAN, and secretary of state
 (1982-89), in that post pursuing Reagan
 adminstration foreign policy objectives. He
 entirely disavowed any knowledge of the
 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR, staying on to play a key role
 in developing the series of 
REAGAN-GORBACHEV

 SUMMIT meetings that led to the INF 
TREATY, the
 Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, the settlement
 of several major regional conflicts, and the end of
 the 
COLD WAR.

shuttle bombing, from late June 1943, the World War
 II bombing of Axis targets in Europe by Allied
 planes from Britain, which flew on to North Africa,
 there refueling and often bombing European targets
 again on the way home. In June 1944 the Allies
 organized shuttle bombing runs from Britain to the
 Soviet Union and back.

shuttle diplomacy, a media description of the
 personal diplomacy of U.S. secretary of state Henry
 
KISSINGER, as he flew back and forth between the
 several parties in the Middle East, trying to
 defuse recurrent crises and build a basis for a
 lasting peace in the area. It was later used quite
 aptly to describe that general kind of diplomatic
 approach.

Siad Barre, Mohammed (1920- ), Somali officer, who
 became armed forces commander in chief in 1966, and
 led a coup that installed him as Somali ruler in
 1969. As president he led a one-party, totalitarian
 socialist state, which largely failed to develop
 his arid, very poor country. Until the late 1970s
 Siad Barre was closely allied with the Soviet
 Union. But after the Somali invasion of the Ogaden
 desert region in 1977 had generated the lost
 
SOMALI-ETHOPIAN WAR of 1977-78, in which Soviet
 and Cuban forces helped Ethiopia to defeat his
 forces, Siad Barre turned to the United States for
 arms and other support.

Sian Incident (December 12-25, 1936), the detention
 of 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK by his own forces, when he
 went to Sian (now Xian) to personally lead an
 anti-Communist offensive. General 
CHANG HSUEH-

 LIANG insisted that Chiang negotiate with the
 Communists to establish a united front against the
 Japanese; Chiang did negotiate with 
ZHOU ENLAI, a
 truce resulted, and Chiang was released. Chang left
 Sian with Chiang, was arrested, and spent the next
 quarter century under house arrest, on the mainland
 and later on Taiwan.

Sicily, Invasion of (July 9-August 17, 1943), World
 War II landings on the Sicilian southern coast, on
 July 9, by seaborne Allied forces led by generals
 
PATTON and 
MONTGOMERY, who held their
 beachheads and within a few days were moving
 inland. By the end of July, they were moving north
 toward Messina, after taking western Sicily.
 Italian and German troop evacuations to the
 mainland soon began; the Allies took Messina on
 August 17, ending the Sicilian campaign.

sick man of Europe, a phrase describing the
 
OTTOMAN EMPIRE, which had been weakening
 throughout the 19th century, and was in terminal
 condition during the run-up to World War I.

Siegfried Line (Westwall), World War II line of
 German fortifications on the French-German border,
 built in the 1930s. It was not tested during the
 1939-40 
PHONY WAR period on the 
WESTERN FRONT,
 but proved a significant obstacle to 
ALLIED
 troops moving westward toward Germany in 1944-45.


Sierra Leone (Republic of Sierra Leone), until 1961
 a British colony, becoming an independent state and
 
COMMONWEALTH member on April 27, 1961.

Sihanouk, Norodom (1922- ), Cambodian leader, king
 of Cambodia 1941-55, who helped turn his country
 into a constitutional monarchy after World War II.
 He led his country to independence in 1953,
 abdicated in 1955 to become prime minister, and was
 elected head of state in 1960. From 1959, when
 civil war came to Vietnam, he attempted to be
 neutral, although he did not oppose the building of
 the 
HO CHI MINH TRAIL through his country by the
 North Vietnamese. He was overthrown in 1970 in a
 coup led by 
LON NOL, then setting up a Cambodian
 government-in-exile in Peking. After the victory of
 the Chinese-backed 
KHMER ROUGE he was Cambodian
 head of state again for a year; he then resigned
 and left political life, returning to Cambodian
 politics in the late 1980s.

Sikorsky, Igor Ivan (1889-1972), Russian-American
 aeronautical engineer, who developed the modern
 
HELICOPTER. Inspired by Leonardo Da Vinci's
 ideas, Sikorsky had by age 20 built his first
 helicopter. Lacking the resources to develop it
 properly, in 1911 he turned to designing and flying
 
AIRPLANES, before emigrating during the Russian
 Revolution. In the United States from 1919, he
 founded his own aircraft firm in 1923, designing
 both commercial and military planes, most notably
 the famous 
CLIPPERS. In 1939 Sikorsky returned to
 his first love and developed a truly practical
 helicopter; that and his later models set the
 standard for such craft in the late 20th century.


Silent Spring, Rachel Carson's cautionary work
 (1962), describing a future in which chemicals,
 especially pesticides, and pollution in general
 choke out the Earth's diversity of life; it helped
 lay the basis for development of worldwide
 environmental concern and 
GREEN MOVEMENTS.

Silkwood, Karen Gay (1946-74), U.S. atomic worker,
 who collected evidence of health and safety hazards
 while working at a Kerr-McGee's 
PLUTONIUM
 production plant in Oklahoma; she died in an
 automobile accident on her way to meet a New York
 Times reporter and a union official. Authorities
 ruled her death accidental; her notes were never
 found, and there were widespread, though unproven,
 allegations that she had been murdered. A long
 series of court cases followed; the Kerr-McGee
 Corporation eventually settled the safety
 violations claims of her estate out-of-court. Meryl
 Streep played Karen Silkwood in the movie Silkwood
 (1983).

Simpson, Wallis Warfield (1896-1986), the American
 woman for whom 
EDWARD VIII gave up the British
 throne during the 
ABDICATION CRISIS of 1936, when
 his proposed marriage to her proved unacceptable to
 the main British decision makers of the time, led
 by prime minister Stanley 
BALDWIN. Edward and
 Wallis then became the duke and duchess of Windsor.


Sinai-Suez War (Second Arab-Israeli War, October
 29-November 6, 1956), a war that erupted after
 Egyptian president Gamal Abdel 
NASSER
 nationalized the Suez Canal, partly because of the
 U.S. and British withdrawal of funds for
 construction of the 
ASWAN HIGH DAM, precipitating
 the 
SUEZ CRISIS. Britain and France decided to
 seize the canal, and Israel agreed to attack Egypt,
 providing a rationale for British-French military
 action. As planned, Israeli paratroops and armor
 attacked on October 29. A British-French ultimatum
 was issued, and British-French seaborne invasion
 forces left Malta on October 30. Anglo-French
 bombing of the canal area began on October 31, and
 paratroops attacked Port Said on November 5;
 seaborne forces began landings at Port Said on
 November 6. Meanwhile, Israeli troops attacked
 withdrawing Egyptian troops in the Sinai, taking
 Sharm el-Sheikh on November 5. However, the United
 States opposed the invasion and forced withdrawal
 of the forces of all three invading countries. The
 disputed Suez Canal area was occupied by a 
UNITED

 NATIONS peacekeeping force until 1967, shortly
 before the outbreak of the 
SIX-DAY WAR (
THIRD

 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR).

Sinanthropus Pekinensis, old alternate name for
 
PEKING MAN.

Sinclair, Upton Beall (1878-1968), novelist and
 reformer, whose muckraking novel The Jungle (1906),
 an expose of the Chicago meat-packing industry,
 helped spark the early 
PURE FOOD AND DRUG LAWS. A
 lifelong crusader, Sinclair wrote dozens of novels
 and pamphlets in support of social causes,
 including birth control, child labor laws, and
 socialism, in addition to his Lanny Budd series of
 novels, one of which won a Pulitzer Prize. He also
 ran many times for public office as a socialist,
 almost winning in the California gubernatorial race
 of 1934, and helped found the 
AMERICAN CIVIL

 LIBERTIES UNION.

Singapore (Republic of Singapore), until 1959 a
 British colony. The island was occupied by Japanese
 forces during World War II, gained internal
 autonomy in 1959, and was part of Malaysia 1963-65,
 becoming an independent state and 
COMMONWEALTH
 member on August 9, 1965. From 1963 Singapore was
 led by Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew.

Singapore, Battle of (February 8-15, 1941), the
 taking of Singapore, whose massive fortifications
 faced the sea. The Japanese invaders of 
MALAYA
 came by land after having taken all of mainland
 Malaya from the British in December and January. On
 February 8, 1941, preceded by an aerial
 bombardment, Japanese armored barges with air cover
 crossed the Strait of Johore to attack Singapore.
 On February 15, after the city's water supply had
 been taken by the Japanese, the city's 70,000
 defenders surrendered.

Singh, Mithileshwar, one of the 
LEBANON HOSTAGES,
 an American University professor who was kidnapped
 on January 24, 1988, and released on October 3,
 1988.

Singh, Vishwanath Pratap (1931- ), Indian political
 leader, in the Uttar Pradesh assembly from 1969, in
 parliament as a 
CONGRESS PARTY representative
 from 1971, and in several cabinet-level posts
 during the 1970s. He was head of the Uttar Pradesh
 state government 1980-1982, and minister of finance
 and then of defense in the Rajiv 
GANDHI
 government, going into opposition in 1987. He
 succeeded Gandhi, as the National Front prime
 minister of India, on December 1, 1989.

Sinn Fein, the political arm of the Irish
 Republican movement, which became a political party
 in 1905 and the majority party in the elections of
 1918, after the executions of the leaders of the
 
EASTER RISING of 1916. They proclaimed the Irish
 Republic in April 1919, naming Eamon 
DE VALERA as
 first president of the Irish republic. Sinn Fein
 organized and operated the provisional Irish
 government during the 
IRISH CIVIL WAR. The party
 split over the agreement ending that war, which
 partitioned Ireland, and it was never again a
 powerful force, essentially replaced by De Valera's
 Fianna Fail party in 1926.

Sino-Japanese War (1937-45), conflict between China
 and Japan that began on July 7, 1937, with the
 
MARCO POLO BRIDGE INCIDENT near Peking, China. By
 the end of 1937, the Japanese had taken Peking,
 Tientsin, much of the north China plain, Shanghai,
 and Nanking, and the Chinese had moved their
 capital to Hankow. During 1938, the Japanese
 continued their advance, taking more of north and
 central China, including Suchow, Kaifeng, and
 finally, in October, Hankow and Canton. They had
 suffered a major reverse in June when the Chinese
 broke the 
YELLOW RIVER DIKES, flooding the river
 plain and drowning a Japanese offensive. The
 Chinese then moved their capital to Chungking,
 where it stayed for the rest of the war. Meanwhile,
 the Communists were fighting a guerrilla war
 against the Japanese in north China and extending
 their network of bases and influence. As Chinese
 resistance hardened rather than collapsing, as the
 Japanese had hoped, the Japanese advance stalled in
 1939 and remained stalled while they began their
 run-up to World War II, including their 1940
 invasion of Indochina. During the early years of
 World War II the war in China settled into a
 Japanese occupation, with periodic small Japanese
 offensives aimed at cutting Chinese food supplies.
 But in 1943 and 1944 Allied air forces achieved
 clear superiority throughout the eastern theater,
 the Japanese responding with a successful offensive
 aimed at Allied airfields late in 1944, an
 offensive that was resumed in early 1945. By the
 spring of 1945, facing the threat of massive Soviet
 Far Eastern armies and Allied offensives in the
 Pacific and southeast Asia, the Japanese began to
 pull back in China and were continuing to pull back
 as the war ended in August.

Sirhan Sirhan (1944- ), assassin of Robert F.
 
KENNEDY in Los Angeles on June 5, 1968. He was
 immediately captured and, on conviction, was
 sentenced to death, a sentence that because of a
 change of California law was later commuted to life
 imprisonment.

Sirica, John Joseph (1904- ), U.S. lawyer and
 judge, a Republican who in 1957 was appointed by
 President Dwight D. 
EISENHOWER to the U.S.
 district court for the District of Columbia. He was
 chief judge of that court in 1973, when he presided
 over the original 
WATERGATE burglars trial and
 then a series of subsequent Watergate-related
 actions, including the tapes actions that led
 directly to the threatened impeachment and ultimate
 resignation of President Richard M. 
NIXON.

sit-down strikes, a strike technique used by U.S.
 labor during the mass-production-industry
 organizing strikes of the mid-1930s, in which
 striking workers continued to occupy their
 workplaces, refusing to be evicted other than by
 force. It was most notably employed during the
 massive United Automobile Workers-General Motors
 organizing strike of January-February, 1937, when
 Flint, Michigan, police attempted to bar food
 supplies to the sit-down strikers inside the struck
 plants, and a battle ensued. The violence was
 stopped by Governor Frank 
MURPHY of Michigan, who
 ordered in the National Guard, allowed food to flow
 to the strikers, and mediated the dispute, with the
 help of an appeal for cooperation from President
 Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT. The union was recognized,
 the strike was won-and the sit-down strike
 technique was declared illegal by the Supreme Court
 in 1939.

Six-Day War (Third Arab-Israeli War; June 5-10,
 1967), a successful set of surprise attacks by
 Israel against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, after
 weeks of preparation by the Arab states and Israel
 for a major new war. In mid-May Egyptian president
 Gamal Abdel 
NASSER declared a state of emergency
 and demanded withdrawal of 
UNITED NATIONS
 peacekeeping forces from the Suez Canal; UN
 Secretary-General U 
THANT did so immediately.
 Israel and the Arab states then mobilized for war.
 On June 5 Israel launched preemptive air strikes
 against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, destroying most
 of the air forces of all three countries on the
 ground and damaging Iraqi air strength as well.
 Then, in 6 days, Israel defeated the Egyptian army,
 taking the entire Sinai Peninsula; defeated the
 Jordanian army, taking the balance of Jerusalem and
 the entire 
WEST BANK; and defeated the Syrian
 army, taking the Golan Heights. No peace treaty
 followed the war; Israel continued to occupy the
 territories taken.

Sixteenth Amendment, amendment to the U.S.
 Constitution (1913) empowering Congress to levy
 federal income taxes.

Skate, U.S. submarine that was the first to surface
 at the 
NORTH POLE, in 1960.

Skinner, Burrhus Frederic (1904- ), U.S.
 psychologist, who was a key exponent of
 
BEHAVIORISM from the late 1930s. To Skinner,
 ideas of freedom and human will are, at best,
 illusions because human behavior is the result of
 learning and experience. He believed that education
 should be controlled and behavior engineered so
 that individuals act for the good of the group,
 rather than in disruptive ways, ideas developed in
 his widely circulated 1948 book, Walden Two. Aiming
 to make learning more rigorously controlled and
 efficient, Skinner developed the idea of programmed
 instruction, incorporated in a "teaching machine."
 The machine did not last, but Skinner's approaches
 had considerable influence on education, especially
 on the structuring of material for learning.

Skokie Nazi march (1978), a public march, at which
 the 
SWASTIKA would be displayed, planned for
 Skokie, Illinois, by the American 
NAZI party,
 generating a long train of litigation. Ultimately,
 the U.S. Supreme Court overruled lower courts that
 had banned the march and then struck down local
 ordinances that also would have resulted in banning
 the march. The 
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION
 supported the constitutional right of the Nazis to
 march and lost one third of its Illinois membership
 and 20% of its national membership as a direct
 result. After winning the legal battle, the Nazis
 decided to call off their march; instead, they held
 a public meeting at Marquette Park in Chicago on
 July 9, 1978. Approximately 20-25 uniformed Nazis
 came, along with an estimated 2,000-3,000
 spectators.

Skylab, U.S. orbital space station dedicated to
 scientific experiments, especially exploring
 possible commercial and scientific opportunities in
 space, launched on May 14, 1973. Damaged on launch,
 it was repaired by the first three-man crew after
 their arrival on May 25, at the start of their
 28-day stay. Two other Skylab missions were
 launched in 1973, the last and longest lasting for
 84 days. Later abandoned, the Skylab station fell
 back to Earth in 1979, breaking up with no harm
 over Australia.

Slansky show trials, the November 1952 trial and
 conviction for treason, on wholly false charges, of
 Rudolph Slansky, Czech Communist party
 secretary-general, 1945-51, and 13 other leading
 Czech Communists. Slansky and 11 of the others were
 Jews; less than 2 months later Joseph 
STALIN'S
 anti-Semitism was to cause the arrest of the Soviet
 doctors who were falsely accused in the 
DOCTOR'S

 PLOT. Slansky and 10 others were hanged in
 December; the remaining 3 were imprisoned and later
 released; all 14 were rehabilitated, 11 of them
 posthumously.

Slim, William Joseph (1891-1970), British officer,
 who saw service in World War I, and during World
 War II was a divisional commander in the Middle
 East before being sent to Burma in 1942, there
 retreating with his forces to India before
 advancing Japanese forces. In early 1944, his
 Fourteenth Army began the series of victories that
 ultimately drove the Japanese from Burma.

smallpox, first disease to be totally eradicated by
 medical intervention. Though effective vaccines had
 been available since the 19th century, millions of
 cases and thousands of deaths were still caused
 annually by smallpox as late as 1967, the year of
 the last major epidemic, in India and Pakistan. But
 in the late 1960s the 
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
 (WHO) mounted an inoculation campaign to eliminate
 smallpox altogether. The last known case of
 smallpox was reported in October 1977, the last to
 die being a Somali citizen, except for a British
 photographer who in 1978 was inadvertently infected
 by smallpox viruses being used in research at
 Birmingham University.

Smith, Alfred Emanuel (1873-1944), U.S. political
 leader, a four-term Democratic governor of New York
 State (1919-20; 1923-28), who in 1928 became his
 party's presidential nominee, losing to Herbert
 
HOOVER in an election marred by anti-Catholic
 bias against Smith.

Smith, Ian (1919- ), Zimbabwean white political
 leader, in the Southern Rhodesian parliament from
 1948 and prime minister of 
SOUTHERN RHODESIA
 1964-79, who led the unsuccessful effort to
 maintain minority white rule in his country. In
 1965, facing world and 
COMMONWEALTH condemnation,
 he led Southern Rhodesia to declare its
 independence from Great Britain, and from the early
 1970s he was engaged in the long 
ZIMBABWE CIVIL

 WAR. In 1979 he stepped down, participated in the
 brief 
MUZOREWA government, and was thereafter a
 white representative in the Zimbabwe parliament.

Smith Act trials, a series of trials of U.S.
 Communist leaders, beginning in 1948 and extending
 into the 1950s, under the Smith Alien Registration
 Act of 1940, which proscribed the teaching or
 advocacy of violent overthrow of the U.S.
 government, as well as organization of or
 membership in any organization so advocating. The
 convictions of 11 Communist leaders were upheld by
 the Supreme Court in Dennis v. United States
 (1951); other trials and convictions followed
 thereafter, until the Court reinterpreted the law
 to mean specific incitement to violent overthrow in
 Yates v. United States (1957), the anti-Communist
 hysteria of the 
MCCARTHY period by then having
 subsided.

Smolny Institute, 
BOLSHEVIK Petrograd
 headquarters during the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION; from
 there Leon 
TROTSKY directed the military forces
 that took control of the city and stormed the
 
WINTER PALACE.

Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930), the law establishing
 very high U.S. protective tariffs, initiated by
 U.S. senator Reed Smoot following the 
CRASH of
 1929. It sharply cut worldwide trade as other
 countries followed suit, and thereby made a major
 contribution to the acceleration of the worldwide
 
GREAT DEPRESSION of the 1930s and the onrush of
 fascism and war.

Smuts, Jan Christian (1870-1950), South African
 lawyer, who became a guerrilla general during the
 
BOER WAR, afterward working with Louis 
BOTHA to
 secure self-government for the Transvaal and the
 Orange Free State and to create the Union of South
 Africa. He was defense minister 1910-20 and
 commander of South African forces and then of
 Allied East African forces during World War I; in
 1917 he joined the 
LLOYD GEORGE war cabinet. At
 the 
PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE he was active in
 developing the 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS, then returned
 home to become prime minister (1919-24), leaving
 politics for 9 years after being defeated by James
 
HERTZOG in 1924. In 1933 he joined Hertzog's
 coalition cabinet as justice minister, taking
 office as prime minister when Hertzog refused to
 support South African participation in World War
 II. He was a leading 
COMMONWEALTH statesman
 throughout the war and into the postwar period, and
 among those who drafted the 
UNITED NATIONS
 charter. But his internationalist and developing
 multiracialist approach did not long survive in
 South Africa's postwar period. He was defeated by
 Daniel 
MALAN in 1948; what followed was
 
APARTHEID and four decades of racism that
 destroyed much of what he had labored to build.

Snow, Edgar Parks (1905-72), U.S. journalist, in
 China from 1928, who in 1936 went to 
YENAN, there
 interviewing and becoming friendly with many of the
 leaders of Chinese communism, including 
MAO

 ZEDONG and 
ZHOU ENLAI. He brought the Chinese
 Communists and their movement to the Western world
 for the first time in his book Red Star over China
 (1937), thereafter continuing to report and write
 on China and Chinese communism until his death.

Soares, Mario Alberto Nobre Lopez (1924- ),
 Portuguese lawyer and socialist, often imprisoned
 by the 
SALAZAR dictatorship and in exile 1970-74;
 he returned to Portugual after the 
PORTUGUESE

 ARMED FORCES MOVEMENT coup of 1974 to become a
 leader of the new government. He was foreign
 minister 1974-75, in that position bringing
 Portuguese African colonial rule to an end, and
 prime minister 1976-78 and 1983-85, becoming
 president in 1986.

socialism, a considerable range of related
 theories, all calling to some extent for public
 economic ownership, from the ownership of only some
 major public utilities to the total public
 ownership of every aspect of economic life, with
 such ownership exercised in a wide range of state
 forms. In the 20th century those calling themselves
 socialists have been democrats and totalitarians,
 moderates and radicals, from Clement 
ATTLEE,
 Eugene 
DEBS, and Jawaharlal 
NEHRU to V.I.
 
LENIN, Joseph 
STALIN, and 
MAO ZEDONG-and also
 
DENG XIAOPING and Mikhail 
GORBACHEV, who late
 in the century sharply redefined the Communist
 branch of socialism. During World War I many of the
 world's socialist parties split over whether or not
 to support their warring national governments, most
 of them choosing to do so, despite previous vows to
 oppose a war. After the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
 socialism split into two well-defined branches, one
 a group of moderate socialist parties organized
 into the 
SECOND INTERNATIONAL, the other a group
 of Communist parties organized into the 
THIRD
 (
COMMUNIST) 
INTERNATIONAL, or 
COMINTERN. In
 Europe, socialist parties were in power during part
 of the interwar period in Germany and France and
 after World War II in many countries, including
 Great Britain and the Scandinavian states. Parties
 describing themselves as socialist or
 socialist-oriented also came to power in many new
 nations, including India, Indonesia, Israel, such
 Arab socialist states as Iraq and Syria, and a wide
 range of other developing nations, some of them
 democracies and some one-party states.

Socialist Party of the United States, a political
 body formed in 1901 in a merger of the Socialist
 Labor party and the Social Democratic party of
 America. It was led by Eugene V. 
DEBS and
 achieved considerable electoral strength before the
 United States entered World War I. Debs was
 Socialist presidential candidate in 1904, 1908,
 1912, and 1920, receiving more than 900,000 votes
 in the elections of 1912 and 1920; the 1912 total
 was over 6% of the total vote. The party came under
 heavy attack for its antiwar position during World
 War I, Debs and other leaders being imprisoned
 under the Espionage and Sedition Acts. In 1919 the
 Communist-oriented wing of the party split off, in
 two splinters that in 1920 joined to form the
 
COMMUNIST PARTY. The Socialist party never
 regained its prewar strength, although it
 continued, with Norman 
THOMAS as its main
 standard-bearer.

Socialist Revolutionary party, the largest
 revolutionary party in Russia, until its
 suppression by the 
BOLSHEVIKS after the 
OCTOBER

 REVOLUTION of 1917, and the party of Alexander
 
KERENSKY, premier of the 
PROVISIONAL

 GOVERNMENT. In a largely rural Russia it was a
 party of agrarian reform; it was also committed to
 terrorist tactics, its members routinely engaging
 in political assassination.

Social Security, in the United States, the system
 of federally guaranteed retirement benefits
 originally established by the 
NEW DEAL's Social
 Security Act of 1935. It has since grown into a
 massive set of federal-state social insurance
 collections, guarantees, and payments, covering
 later-years, survivors, disability, health care,
 unemployment compensation, and a miscellany of
 welfare provisions.

Soddy, Frederick (1877-1956), British chemist who
 with Ernest 
RUTHERFORD developed the theory
 (1902-03) that 
RADIOACTIVITY resulted in the
 transformation of one element to another. Exploring
 this radioactive disintegration, he discovered that
 many elements exist in variant forms, which in 1913
 he named 
ISOTOPES, a discovery that won him the
 1921 Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

SOE, the initials of the British covert operations
 
SPECIAL OPERATIONS EXECUTIVE.

solar energy, energy collected from the Sun's
 
RADIATION, which humans have been able to
 concentrate for human use only in the 20th century.
 In 1913 a solar collector of over 13,000 square
 feet was built in Egypt to turn water into steam to
 run an irrigation pump. In 1939 scientists at the
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology built an
 experimental house heated by flat-plate solar
 collectors on its roof, improved by various
 innovations in the following decades. Little use
 was made of such solar-heating possibilities,
 however, until the 
OIL EMBARGO of the 1970s,
 after which some people added solar panels to their
 homes; incentive declined with the oil glut of the
 1980s. Meanwhile, French scientists explored
 large-scale uses with the first large solar
 furnace, built 1948-52 at Montlouis, a prototype
 for others in the United States, Japan, and
 France-notably at Odeillo, a massive alignment of
 9,600 mirrors covering 20,000 square feet. Solar
 furnaces are often used in studying
 high-temperature properties of materials. Of
 greater long-term interest is the possibility of
 converting solar to electrical energy. In 1954 Bell
 Laboratories scientists D. M. Chapin, C. S. Fuller,
 and G. L. Pearson developed the first solar cell to
 do just that, using silicon crystals to form
 
TRANSISTORS. Though used in space, the cost of
 solar cells is relatively high and the efficiency
 low, so they have not so far had a major impact on
 human society. At the world's largest solar energy
 plant, Solar One, built in California's Mojave
 Desert 1980-81, for example, electricity initially
 cost five to ten times as much as normal, though
 that improved somewhat and innovations such as
 
SUPERCONDUCTORS could totally change the picture.
 In the late 1960s some scientists proposed
 launching a huge satellite energy collector into
 space, returning energy to Earth in a 
MICROWAVE
 beam, but cost and concerns about radiation
 hampered development of such a project.

Solidarity (Independent Self-Governing Trade Union
 Solidarity), Polish national trade union
 confederation, formed on September 18, 1980, after
 the nationwide series of strikes generated by the
 successful 
GDANSK LENIN SHIPYARD STRIKE and led
 from its inception by Lech 
WALESA. In less than a
 year Solidarity grew to include an estimated 10
 million workers, second only to the government as a
 force in Poland. It was officially outlawed by the
 martial law decree of December 1981, going
 underground while remaining a major force in the
 country. In late 1988 and early 1989, during the
 
GORBACHEV era, a series of Solidarity-government
 talks were conducted, ultimately leading to the
 1989 legalization of Solidarity. The organization
 won a major electoral victory in the 1989 Polish
 elections, the first free elections to be held in
 Poland in 40 years.

Solomon Islands, until 1975 a British colony,
 gaining internal autonomy in 1976 and independence
 on July 7, 1978.

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander Isayevich (1918- ), Soviet
 novelist and dissenter, imprisoned and internally
 exiled, 1945-56; his work indicted 
STALIN'S
 government and the Soviet system from which it
 developed. Such works as The Gulag Archipelago
 (1973-75), The First Circle (1968), and his early
 One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962)
 exposed the Soviet prison system, won him the 1970
 Nobel Prize for Literature and caused his
 deportation in 1974; he then settled in the United
 States, there continuing his work.

Somalia (Somali Democratic Republic), an
 independent nation formed on July 1, 1960, by a
 merger of 
BRITISH SOMALILAND with what had
 earlier in the century been 
ITALIAN SOMALILAND,
 taken by the British after World War II and
 administered by Italy as a 
UNITED NATIONS trust
 territory 1950-60. French Somaliland later became
 
DJIBOUTI. Somali claims to the Ogaden region,
 held by 
ETHIOPIA, generated the 
SOMALI-ETHIOPIAN

 WAR of 1977-78. Somali is a one-party state, led
 by Mohammed 
SIAD BARRE from the 1969 military
 coup.

Somali-Ethiopian War (1977-78), conflict that began
 with a Somali invasion of the disputed Ogaden
 desert region. From July through early September
 1977 Somali forces enjoyed some early successes.
 The Somalis besieged Harar in late September but
 failed to take the city, partly because of Soviet
 and Cuban support of their Ethiopian allies against
 their Somali allies. In November 1977 Somali
 expelled Soviet forces and closed Soviet bases. In
 February 1978 Ethiopian and Cuban forces, supported
 by Soviet advisers, relieved Harar, and broke
 Somali strength at Diredawa-Jijiga (March 2-5). The
 Somalis requested a cease-fire on March 8, 1978,
 and subsequently withdrew from the Ogaden region.


Somme, Battle of the (July 1-November 13, 1916), a
 4-month-long World War I assault by major British
 and French forces against heavily fortified and
 strongly defended German positions in the Somme
 valley, which gained only 8 miles; cost an
 estimated 650,000 British, 420,000 German, and
 195,000 French casualties; and failed to break
 through the German defense. The British introduced
 
TANKS on the Somme.

Somme Offensive (March 21-April 5,1918), the first
 of five major German offensives in 1918, all of
 them aimed at winning World War I with the help of
 the Eastern Front troops freed by Soviet withdrawal
 from the war. German forces attacked British armies
 on the Somme and advanced 40 miles before they were
 stopped-close enough to bombard Paris with their
 
BIG BERTHA long-range seige guns.

Somoza Debayle, Anastasio (1925-80), Nicaraguan
 officer, son of Anastasio 
SOMOZA Garcia. A West
 Point-educated soldier, he took control of the
 National Guard after his father's 1956
 assassination, and in 1963 became dictator,
 succeeding his brother Luis. He continued his
 family's dictatorship but lost a great deal of
 public support after diverting large amounts of aid
 to personal use following the 
MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE
 of 1972. He continued to lose support as his
 government turned even more corrupt, ultimately
 also losing the support of the U.S. government. His
 army proved unable to withstand increasing
 
SANDINISTA military pressure in the late 1970s;
 he fled the country in July 1979. He was
 assassinated in Asuncion, Paraguay, on September
 17, 1980.

Somoza Garcia, Anastasio (1896-1956), Nicaraguan
 political leader, who became head of the National
 Guard and took control of Nicaragua in 1933, after
 the departure of the U.S. Marine occupation force.
 He was dictator of Nicaragua until his
 assassination in 1956, in command of the National
 Guard at all times-although in some periods ruling
 through puppet presidents-and always in close
 cooperation with U.S. commercial interests in his
 country. He built a very large family fortune
 during his tenure, as did his sons, who succeeded
 him, Luis becoming dictator 1956-63 and Anastasio
 succeeding Luis 1963-79.

sonar (
SOund 
Navigation 
And 
Ranging),
 technique of transmitting high-frequency sound
 waves, then plotting and analyzing the echoes
 received, the underwater equivalent of 
RADAR.
 Conceived shortly after the Titanic sinking in
 1912, sonar was developed in 1915 by French
 inventor Paul Langevin. At first it was used
 largely to spot underwater icebergs but was also
 used during both World War I and II to help ships
 scan the seas for mines and submarines. By 1922
 sonar was being employed to check ocean depths,
 leading to the 1925 discovery of the Mid-Atlantic
 Ridge, which later figured in theories of
 
CONTINENTAL DRIFT. Sonar continued to be
 developed throughout the century and, with the
 addition of increasingly efficient 
ELECTRONICS,
 developed into a highly sophisticated technique;
 the sound echoes were transformed into electrical
 signals, which formed a picture on a 
CATHODE RAY

 TUBE. Sonar was also used on fishing boats to help
 locate schools of fish, and the technique inspired
 the use of 
ULTRASOUND techniques in many other
 areas, such as medicine.

sonic boom, shock wave created when an aircraft
 reaches the speed of sound and breaks through the
 
SOUND BARRIER, either on acceleration or
 deceleration, first experienced on Charles
 
YEAGER's 1947 flight.

Son of Sam, name assumed by 1970s New York mass
 murderer David 
BERKOWITZ, in his letters to
 newspapers, after which it was adopted by the
 media.

Soong, Ch'ing-ling (Madame Sun Yat-sen; 1892-1981);
 sister of Mei-ling 
SOONG and Chinese financier T.
 V. 
SOONG, and like them educated in the United
 States; she married 
SUN YAT-SEN in 1914 and was
 widely known thereafter as Madame Sun Yat-sen. With
 her husband, she broke with 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK and
 the 
KUOMINTANG, after the split between them and
 the Communists, which in 1927 began the 
CHINESE

 CIVIL WAR. She then lived in the Soviet Union,
 returning to China in 1937 and becoming active in
 war relief work. She supported the Communist side
 in the civil war, taking official positions in the
 
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA after 1949 and
 becoming, as Sun's widow, an important national
 figure.

Soong, Mei-ling (Madame Chiang Kai-shek; 1897- ),
 wife of Chinese leader 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK, known
 throughout the world as Madame Chiang Kai-shek;
 sister of Ching-ling 
SOONG (Madame 
SUN YAT-SEN)
 and of Chinese financier T. V. 
SOONG and like
 them educated in the United States. Her marriage to
 Chiang in 1927 perfected his lifelong alliance with
 the Soongs; at that time he also converted to
 Christianity. She worked very effectively for the
 Chinese Republic from then on, especially in the
 United States.

Soong, T. V. (1894-1971), brother of Ch'ing-ling
 
SOONG (Madame 
SUN YAT-SEN) and Mei-ling Soong
 (Madame 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK). Educated in the United
 States, like his sisters, Soong was finance
 minister of 
NATIONALIST CHINA's government in
 1925, and after Chiang's marriage to his sister in
 1927 was his key financial ally, during Chiang's
 rise to power and until Communist victory in 1949.


Sorel, Georges (1847-1922), French philosopher of
 
SYNDICALISM, whose advocacy of violence to
 achieve political aims proved attractive to the
 syndicalists for whom it was intended, and also for
 French, German, and Italian fascist and other
 rightist movements.

Sorge, Richard (1895-1944), an extremely successful
 Soviet spy who, during the 1930s, penetrated the
 German embassy in Tokyo; until late 1941 he passed
 a great deal of vital information as to German and
 Japanese intentions to the Soviet Union, including
 the coming German invasion of the Soviet Union and
 Japanese Southeast Asia invasion plans. He was
 arrested in October 1941 and later executed.

Soudan, the former name of 
MALI (Republic of
 Mali), then part of French West Africa. Mali became
 an independent nation on June 20, 1960.

sound barrier (sonic barrier), increase in
 frictional drag on an object approaching the speed
 of sound, an apparent wall broken through by
 Charles 
YEAGER in the first supersonic flight in
 1947, followed by a 
SONIC BOOM.

Souphanouvong (1909- ), Laotian engineer and
 political leader, a 
PATHET LAO founder who fought
 beside 
VIETMINH forces during the war for
 Indochinese independence in the early 1950s, and
 throughout the long 
LAOTIAN CIVIL WAR headed the
 Lao Patriotic Front, which was associated with the
 Pathet Lao. He participated in the 1960-62
 coalition government organized by his half-brother,
 Prince 
SOUVANNA PHOUMA, and in 1975 became head
 of state of the new Communist government of Laos.
 He resigned because of illness in 1986, though
 remaining chairman of the Lao Front for National
 Reconstruction, which succeeded the Patriotic
 Front.

South Africa (Republic of South Africa), nation
 formed after British victory in the 
BOER WAR. The
 former Boer republics of the Transvaal and Orange
 Free State became British colonies, but were soon
 (1906 and 1907) granted internal autonomy, and in
 1910 joined the British Cape Colony and Natal to
 form the Union of South Africa, which became a
 
COMMONWEALTH member in 1934. In 1961, after South
 African racial policies-as expressed by the
 increasing application of 
APARTHEID and the
 
SHARPEVILLE MASSACRE of 1960-had isolated the
 country from much of the world community, South
 Africa withdrew from the Commonwealth, establishing
 a republic. It became increasingly isolated from
 the rest of the world in the decades that followed,
 as worldwide condemnation of its racialism grew,
 but entered a new era with the advent of the 
DE
 
KLERK government in September 1989, and the
 release of Nelson 
MANDELA in February 1990.

South Carolina v. Katzenbach, Attorney General
 (1966), a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision
 upholding certain challenged sections of the
 
VOTING RIGHTS ACT of 1965 and supporting the aims
 of that antidiscrimination law.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), 1954-77
 military alliance of Australia, France, Great
 Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines,
 Thailand, and the United States, in pursuit of
 common interests in southeast Asia. It included a
 commitment to supply military assistance to
 Cambodia (Kampuchea), Laos, and South Vietnam. Some
 SEATO allies sent contingents to join U.S. forces
 during the 
VIETNAM WAR.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC),
 U.S. civil rights organization founded in 1957 by
 Martin Luther 
KING, JR., Ralph 
ABERNATHY, and
 other leaders of the modern 
CIVIL RIGHTS

 MOVEMENT, most of them Black southern clergymen.
 It was the leading organization of the 
CIVIL

 RIGHTS MOVEMENT from its formation through the
 1960s. King led the organization until his
 assassination in 1968, and was then succeeded by
 Ralph Abernathy.

Southern France campaign of 1944 (August-September
 1944), execution of Operation 
ANVIL-DRAGON late
 in World War II, beginning on August 15, 1944, with
 Allied air-sea landings on the lightly defended
 French Mediterranean coast east of Marseilles.
 French forces quickly captured Marseilles and
 Toulon, taking 45,000-50,000 prisoners. American
 forces pursued and trapped the retreating Germans
 in the RhHone Valley, ultimately taking over
 30,000 prisoners.

Southern Rhodesia, a former White-dominated, racist
 British African colony, which became independent in
 1965, a republic in 1969, and then entered the
 period of the 
ZIMBABWE-RHODESIA CIVIL WARS, from
 which in 1980 emerged the new nation of 
ZIMBABWE.


Southgate Supper Club fire (May 28, 1977), a smoky
 kitchen fire that spread through this large,
 rambling Kentucky supper club, ultimately killing
 162 people, some in the resulting panic and most
 through smoke inhalation.

South Pole, southern end of the Earth's axis,
 target of numerous landmark 20th-century
 expeditions. After several earlier attempts, by
 Ernest 
SHACKLETON among others, Roald 
AMUNDSEN
 in 1911 led the first party to reach the South
 Pole, with Robert 
SCOTT's ill-fated party
 arriving a month later. The first flight over the
 South Pole was made by Richard E. 
BYRD with
 co-pilot Bernt Balchen on November 29, 1929.
 Lincoln 
ELLSWORTH flew over wide areas of the
 Antarctic, including the South Pole, 1933-39.
 During the 1957-58 
INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL

 YEAR, Edmund 
HILLARY led the third party to
 reach the South Pole, arriving by tractor on
 January 4, 1958.

Southwest Africa People's Organization of Namibia
 (SWAPO), Namibian nationalist organization formed
 in 1959, to press for the withdrawal of South
 African forces and the establishment of an
 independent Namibia. In 1966 SWAPO went over to
 armed insurrection, with Angola-based groups
 beginning a low-level guerrilla war of
 independence, mounted by what SWAPO called its
 "external" forces. Simultaneously, SWAPO
 "internal" forces within Namibia continued to use
 legal means to press for independence, which was
 promised as part of the 1988 general peace
 agreements in the Angola-Namibia area. Namibia
 became an independent nation in March 1990.

South Yemen, alternate name for 
YEMEN PEOPLE'S

 REPUBLIC, an independent nation since 1967.

South Yemen Civil War (January 1986), a short,
 bloody week of fighting in Aden between rival
 groups within the ruling Yemen Socialist party,
 which cost an estimated 4,000 lives. Fighting began
 with an attempt by party chairman Ali Nasir
 Mohammed to massacre his opponents and ended with
 his defeat and flight.

Souvanna Phouma (1901-84), Laotian engineer,
 administrator, and political leader, a moderate who
 led the Laotian government from 1951 to 1975,
 except for a period as ambassador to France in
 1958-59. During 1960-62 he led a coalition
 government that included his half-brother, Prince
 
SOUPHANOUVONG. He was Western-oriented for the
 balance of the period, which included the 1950-75
 
LAOTIAN CIVIL WAR. After the 
PATHET LAO victory
 he stayed on in Vientiane in an advisory capacity.


soviet, the Russian word for council. The first
 soviets formed during the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF
 1905 and then disbanded. In 1917, before and during
 the 
FEBRUARY REVOLUTION and the 
PROVISIONAL

 GOVERNMENT period, the Petrograd and other soviets
 throughout the country formed a network of
 representative bodies, becoming the main vehicle
 for 
BOLSHEVIK development of the 
OCTOBER

 REVOLUTION of 1917 and then the main descriptor
 for Russian society itself.

Soviet collectivization famine (1932-34), the
 famine resulting from the disastrous drop in
 agricultural production following forced
 collectivization, coupled with the export of well
 over l.5 millions of tons of grain per year. The
 famine and accompanying health problems caused the
 death of at least 1.5 million and probably 5-6
 million Soviet citizens.

Soviet-Japanese War of 1945 (August 9-14, 1945),
 short-lived conflict at the end of World War II. On
 August 9, 1945, 3 days after the 
HIROSHIMA
 bombing, the Soviet Union declared war against
 Japan, then immediately launched a major attack
 from Outer Mongolia and Siberia on Japan's
 
KWANGTUNG ARMY in Manchuria. Overcoming early
 Japanese resistance, the much stronger Soviet
 armies had within 4 days smashed the Kwangtung
 Army, overrun much of Manchuria, and were on August
 14, the day of Japan's surrender, across the Yalu
 River into Korea.

Soviet-Polish War (1920), post-World War I conflict
 in which, on April 25, 1920, Polish armies led by
 General Josef 
PILSUDSKI and allied with Ukrainian
 forces led by Simon 
PETLYURA, attacked Soviet
 forces in eastern Poland and the Ukraine. Poland
 had been newly reconstituted after the end of World
 War I; the Russians were engaged in the 
RUSSIAN

 CIVIL WAR. Pilsudski's forces scored early
 successes, taking Kiev, while Petlyura's forces
 engaged in severe anti-Jewish pogroms in the
 occupied areas. In mid-May, Soviet forces led by
 Generals Mikhail 
TUKHACHEVSKY and Semen 
BUDENNY
 counterattacked; by late July they were nearing
 Warsaw. At the decisive Battle of 
WARSAW (August
 16-25, 1920), the Polish army smashed the Soviet
 force then moved east, their advance stopping only
 with the armistice of October 12, 1920. On March
 18, 1921, the Treaty of 
RIGA defined Poland's
 eastern borders.

Soviet Union, an alternate and the most widely used
 name of the 
UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS.


Soweto riots (June 1976), massive riots that
 erupted in Soweto, a large Black township southwest
 of Johannesburg, when the South African government
 attempted to force the use of the Afrikaans
 language in all South African schools. In a week of
 rioting that began in Soweto and spread to other
 parts of the country, an estimated 600 Black and
 other non-white South Africans were killed by the
 police and thousands more were injured. The forced
 use of Afrikaans was dropped.

Soyuz, series of U.S.S.R. workhorse spacecraft used
 from April 23, 1967. The first flight was a
 disaster, with cosmonaut Vladimir M. Komarov killed
 on emergency reentry, as would happen to the
 three-man crew of the Soyuz 11 on June 30, 1971.
 But the Soyuz went on to success, with many
 "firsts" to its credit. On January 15-16, 1969,
 Soyuz 4 and 5 linked together in the first space
 docking by two piloted craft; Soyuz 10 on March 23,
 1971, docked with Salyut 1, the first space
 station. In the first joint U.S.-Soviet mission,
 Soyuz 19, launched on July 15, 1975, docked with an
 
APOLLO ASTP craft. Soyuz 34, launched unmanned on
 June 6, 1979, carried cosmonauts back from the
 Salyut space station.

Spaak, Paul-Henri (1889-1972), Belgian lawyer,
 socialist, and political leader, who entered
 parliament in 1932, and from 1935 to 1966 held a
 long series of cabinet posts. He was premier three
 times (1938-39, 1946, 1947-50), was the first
 president of the 
UNITED NATIONS General Assembly
 in 1946, secretary-general of NATO 1957-61, and a
 founder of the 
EUROPEAN COMMON MARKET.

Spaatz, Carl (1891-1974), U.S. Air Force officer,
 who in 1942 took command of American air forces in
 Britain, then in North Africa, and from January
 1944 until reassignment to the Pacific theater in
 early 1945 commanded all U.S. air forces in Europe.
 He then commanded all American Pacific air forces
 until the Japanese surrender.

space race, U.S.-U.S.S.R competition in the
 exploration and exploitation of space, for
 prestige, power, and knowledge, sparked by the
 Soviet 
SPUTNIK flight in 1957.

space shuttle, U.S. series of reusable spacecraft
 used from 1981, formally called the Space
 Transportation System (STS) craft, including
 Columbia, Challenger, Atlantis, and Discovery.

space-time continuum, the idea that space and time
 are not separate and distinct entities but merge
 into one another. Inspired by 
EINSTEIN's 1905
 theory of 
RELATIVITY, in 1907 Russian-German
 mathematician Hermann Minkowski posited that time
 was a kind of fourth dimension of the universe, an
 idea that Einstein employed in his 1915 general
 theory of relativity.

Space Transportation System (STS), formal name of
 the series of U.S. spacecraft popularly called the
 
SPACE SHUTTLE, used from 1981.

space walk, movement by an astronaut outside a
 spacecraft, wearing a spacesuit, first done by
 Soviet cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov in March 1965 in
 the Voskhod 2; such astronauts were always tethered
 to their craft until 1984 when the first U.S.
 astronauts moved into space wearing jet-propelled
 backpacks.

Spanish Civil War (1936-39), a successful
 insurrection, led by fascist Francisco 
FRANCO,
 against the Loyalist forces of the Spanish
 Republic, which cost an estimated l million war
 dead. The war was also, in part, a rehearsal for
 World War II. Nationalist forces were joined by
 German and Italian troops, tanks, airplanes, other
 armaments, and advisers, and were heavily supplied
 by those countries with war materials. Loyalist
 forces were joined by smaller numbers of Soviet
 advisers, pilots, and armaments, as well as the
 troops of the 
INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES, and were
 able to buy some war materials abroad, including
 French airplanes. The democratic nations declared
 their neutrality, to the great advantage of the
 Nationalist forces, which, from early in the war,
 were far better equipped and supplied than the
 Loyalists. The war began on July 18, 1936, with
 army and navy revolts in Morocco and Spain; by
 November, Nationalist troops had begun the long
 siege of 
MADRID. The war was won essentially in
 the north; Bilbao fell in June 1937, and Barcelona
 in January 1939, a few months after the decisive
 Battle of the 
EBRO. Madrid and Valencia
 surrendered in March 1939.

Spanish flu epidemic, an alternate name for the
 
INFLUENZA PANDEMIC of 1918-19.

Spartacist Revolt (1919), the failed armed
 Communist insurrection in Berlin against the new
 German socialist government, in January 1919. It
 was led by Rosa 
LUXEMBURG and Karl 
LIEBKNECHT
 of the Spartacist League, who were murdered by
 their 
FREIKORPS captors on January 15, 1919.

Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go
 far, statement by U.S. president Theodore
 
ROOSEVELT, September 2, 1901.

Special Operations Executive (SOE), British World
 War II covert operations organization, which
 developed intelligence and field operations in
 several theaters of war, functioning especially to
 supply and coordinate European anti-Nazi resistance
 movements.

Speck, Richard Benjamin, U.S. mass murderer who
 killed eight student nurses in Chicago, July 13-14,
 1966; he was captured and sentenced to life
 imprisonment.

Speer, Albert (1905-81), Nazi who after 1942 became
 head of Germany's war production organization; he
 was tried and convicted as a war criminal at
 
NUREMBERG after the war, and sentenced to 20
 years in prison.

Spengler, Oswald (1880-1936), German philosopher
 and historian whose major work, The Decline of the
 West (1922), summed up his thinking, which posited
 immutable laws of societal change and development,
 attacked democracy as a symptom of decay, and urged
 Germans to jettison democracy in favor of
 authoritarianism. Although entirely useless as
 historical analysis, his work found favor with
 those attacking Wiemar democracy in the 1920s and
 helped to provide the ideological conditions for
 the rise of German fascism.

sperm bank, storehouse of sperm frozen for later
 use in artificial insemination; an idea suggested
 in the 1950s by U.S. geneticist Hermann Joseph
 Muller. The sperm is often drawn from men regarded
 as superior, as in intellectual ability, physical
 development, and freedom from known genetic
 defects. It is, in effect, a form of modern
 
EUGENICS, likewise often being associated with
 non-scientific racism or elitism.

Spinola, Antonio Sebastiao Ribiero de (1910- ),
 Portuguese officer, who led antiguerrilla forces in
 Guinea 1968-72, was army chief of staff 1972-74,
 and became president of the new democratic
 government after the 
PORTUGUESE ARMED FORCES

 MOVEMENT coup of April 1974, although he did not
 join in the coup. He resigned in September, in
 disagreement with the policy of rapid withdrawal
 from the African colonies. In March 1975 he fled to
 Brazil, after the failure of a military coup.

Spirit of St. Louis, The, the airplane in which
 Charles A. 
LINDBERGH made the first solo flight
 across the Atlantic, on May 20-21, 1927.

split brain, recognition that the two halves of the
 brain, while working together in a complementary
 way, have special areas of dominance, the left side
 of the brain focusing on language skills and the
 right hand, eye, and ear; the right side, on
 shapes, emotions, and other nonverbal skills and
 the left hand, eye, and ear. From the mid-1940s
 some operations had been performed dividing the
 brains of patients, to halt the otherwise crippling
 effects of severe epilepsy. Building on experience
 with such patients, and on studies of animals with
 experimentally split brains, scientists in the
 1960s began to more systematically explore the role
 of the two sides of the brain, in the process
 learning more about its normal workings and about
 how to help people with impaired brains, such as
 stroke victims.

Spock, Benjamin McLane (1903- ), U.S. pediatrician
 and author, who became a leading anti-
VIETNAM WAR
 activist and 1972 presidential candiate of the
 People's Party. In 1968 he was convicted of
 illegally counseling draft resistance, but the
 conviction was reversed on appeal.

Spruance, Raymond Ames (1886-1969), U.S. naval
 officer, who took command during the Battle of
 
MIDWAY and played a major role in the winning of
 that decisive victory. In 1943 he commanded Amercan
 naval forces in a series of island-hopping
 invasions of the Gilbert and Marshall island
 groups, becoming a full admiral in early 1944; in
 1944-45 he commanded U.S. naval forces at 
IWO

 JIMA and 
OKINAWA.

Sputnik, series of 
U.S.S.R. SATELLITES; Sputnik 1
 was the first artificial satellite to orbit the
 Earth, on October 4, 1957. The 184-pound capsule
 was boosted into orbit by a converted 
ICBM
 powered by a 
ROCKET built by Valentin 
GLUSHKO;
 it circled the Earth every 96 minutes, reaching a
 high point of 584 miles before returning in early
 1958, burning up on reentry. Sputnik 2, launched
 later that year, carried 
LAIKA, the first dog in
 space. Other Sputnik flights followed, some
 carrying other animals, during which the Russians
 tested various life-support and reentry systems.
 They prepared the way for manned flights, spurred
 the U.S. space program directed by the 
NATIONAL

 AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA), and
 inaugurated the 
SPACE RACE.

SPYCATCHER case, the unsuccessful 2-year British
 government effort to suppress the book Spycatcher,
 an expose by former MI5 intelligence agent Peter
 Wright. In 1985 British publication was suppressed
 by the government, and the suppression was made
 permanent in 1986. Wright arranged for Australian
 publication, but in September 1985 the British
 government secured a restraining order in Australia
 as well. However, in 1987 the Australian courts
 upheld the right to publish, and the book became a
 best-seller in several countries, including the
 United States, while still banned in Britain. Late
 in 1988 several British newspapers defied the ban,
 publishing stories about the book and its
 accusations, and the Sunday Times of London
 serialized it. On October 13, 1988, Britain's Law
 Lords upheld publication of the stories about the
 book, effectively ending the controversy.

Square Deal, a term used by U.S. president Theodore
 
ROOSEVELT to describe his domestic reform
 policies, and as a slogan during his presidential
 campaigns of 1904 and 1912.

Sri Lanka (Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri
 Lanka), until 1948, Ceylon, a British colony, the
 island became an independent state and
 
COMMONWEALTH member on February 4, 1948.

Sri Lankan Civil War (1981- ), a bitter communal
 war between minority Tamils and majority Sinhalese,
 with Tamil United Liberation Front demands for an
 autonomous Tamil area in northern and eastern Sri
 Lanka strongly resisted by the majority Sinhalese
 government. In the early 1980s the Indian
 government of Indira 
GANDHI supported Tamil
 demands, providing support for Tamil exile groups
 in the largely Tamil south Indian province of Tamil
 Nadu. The Rajiv 
GANDHI government, however, took
 a different view, attempting to mediate a peace
 settlement between the parties that did not
 envisage the establishment of an autonomus Tamil
 state, and then sending in Indian peacekeeping
 forces. Tamil guerrillas, originally responsive to
 Indian efforts, ultimately fought Indian forces,
 which were progressively reinforced; by mid-1989
 they numbered an estimated 30,000 troops and even
 at that level were unable to end or even very well
 contain the insurrection.

SS (Schutzstaffel; Blackshirts), the Nazi secret
 police, which also supplied 
CONCENTRATION CAMP
 personnel and later developed a military
 organization; led by Heinrich 
HIMMLER from 1929.
 Before 
HITLER came to power in 1933 the SS was a
 small paramilitary organization. After he came to
 power the SS quickly became the Nazi political
 police, destroying the competitive SA (Brownshirts)
 in the 
BLOOD PURGE of 1934 and providing the
 concentration camp personnel (the Death's Head
 battalion), who would ultimately murder many
 millions of people, including most of the 6 million
 Jews who died in the 
JEWISH HOLOCAUST. During
 World War II the SS military organization (
WAFFEN
 SS) grew very quickly and by the end of the war had
 challenged the German general staff for control of
 the army.

SST, widely used initials for 
SUPERSONIC

 TRANSPORT, AIRPLANES capable of traveling faster
 than the speed of sound.

stagflation, term coined by Swedish economist
 Gunnar 
MYRDAL to describe the combination of
 economic stagnation and inflation he believed
 characterized most Western economies in the 1970s
 and 1980s.

Stalin, Joseph (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili;
 1879-1953), Soviet leader, who played a small role
 in the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION of 1917, but by 1928
 had risen to sole control of the Communist party
 apparatus and with it the Soviet Union, in the
 process defeating and expelling his rival, Leon
 
TROTSKY. In 1929, using the secret police, the
 
CHEKA, as his main instrument, he began the
 processes of

repression, forced collectivization, and quick 
 industrialization that were to bring about the
 deaths of millions of Soviet citizens through mass
 famine and accompanying disease, the deaths of
 millions more in labor camps, and the internal
 exile of still more millions, while at the same
 time helping to develop the Soviet Union into a
 powerful industrial nation. In 1934, after the
 murder of Leningrad Communist party leader Sergei
 
KIROV, he embarked on the 
GREAT PURGE, the
 series of systematic accusations, show trials, and
 executions of tens of thousands of old
 
BOLSHEVIKS, military leaders, and cultural
 leaders. They included such old allies and
 colleagues as Lev 
KAMENEV, Grigori 
ZINOVIEV,
 and Nicolai 
BUKHARIN, as well as Marshal Mikhail
 
TUKHACHEVSKY and most of the Soviet officers'
 corps. The 
MOSCOW TRIALS of this period,
 resulting in the execution of the highest-ranking
 Communist party and military leaders, were the
 showpieces of a much greater set of killings. In
 1939 Stalin signed a nonagression pact with Germany
 and moved Soviet forces into eastern Poland. During
 World War II he added the role of commander in
 chief to that of dictator, taking personal control
 of the Soviet war effort. In the postwar period,
 under his direction, Soviet forces took control of
 most of Eastern Europe, and he participated fully
 in developing the 
COLD WAR. It is probable that
 he was in the process of beginning another major
 Soviet purge at the time of his death, reportedly
 of a brain hemorrhage, on March 5, 1953. The
 massive crimes typical of the Stalin era were
 partially exposed by the 
KHRUSHCHEV SECRET SPEECH
 of 1956 and the 
THAW that followed and were much
 more fully exposed during the 
GORBACHEV era.

Stalingrad, Battle of (August 23, 1942-February 2,
 1943), the decisive World War II Soviet victory
 that stopped the German southern advance and turned
 the tide of the war; at Stalingrad, Soviet armies
 began the series of offensives that were to take
 them to Berlin. From August 23, when German Sixth
 Army forces, commanded by General Friedrich
 
PAULUS, reached the Volga at Stalingrad, Soviet
 and German infantry fought a long, house-to-house
 battle for the city. At the same time, Soviet
 armies, ultimately numbering an estimated 1 million
 men, built up on the German flanks. On November 19,
 preceded by an enormous barrage, Soviet armies
 attacked on both flanks; within 5 days they had
 executing a pincers movement that encircled
 250,000-300,000 German and satellite troops. Hitler
 forbade Paulus from attempting to break out to the
 rear, which he might have done early in the
 encirclement; then the German troops slowly froze,
 starved, and ran out of ammunition. The entire
 remaining German force surrendered on February 2.


Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. United States
 (1911), a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision,
 breaking up the massive Standard Oil trust, which
 controlled much of the American petroleum industry,
 and many other large transportation and industrial
 companies; a major victory for the antitrust forces
 of the time.

Stark incident (May 17, 1987), the killing of 37
 American sailors in a surprise Iraqi missile attack
 on the U.S.S. Stark, operating in the Persian Gulf
 during the Iran-Iraq War. Iraq apologized for the
 error; the United States soon afterward began to
 escort reflagged Kuwaiti tankers through the
 Persian Gulf, and was thereafter involved in
 several other engagements in the Gulf against Iran.


Starkweather, Charles, U.S. mass murderer who
 killed 11 people in Nebraska and Wyoming in
 December 1957 while accompanied by 14-year-old
 Carol Ann Fugate; three of the first four killings
 were those of Fugate's mother, stepfather, and
 2-year-old sister. Starkweather was executed;
 Fugate was sentenced to life imprisonment and later
 paroled.

stars, evolution of, the theory that the stars are
 not eternal but undergo a series of changes called
 
STELLAR EVOLUTION.

Star Wars, popular term for the 
STRATEGIC DEFENSE

 INITIATIVE (SDI), an experimental space-based
 nuclear defense system under development from 1983.


Stauffenberg, Klaus Schenck von (1907-44), German
 anti-Nazi World War II colonel, wounded in action
 and thereafter reassigned to Berlin; he
 unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate Adolf
 
HITLER, as the key element of the army 
OFFICERS'

 PLOT. He was able to carry a bomb into a staff
 conference in Hitler's headquarters at Rastenburg,
 in East Prussia, on July 20, 1944. The bomb went
 off but failed to kill Hitler, and Stauffenberg's
 associates did not succeed in taking power. He was
 seized and executed later in the same day. A purge
 and many executions followed; Hitler lived until
 his suicide in Berlin, on May 30, 1945.

Stavisky affair, an early 1930s French scandal
 involving financier Serge Stavisky, who in December
 1933 was accused of bond fraud and committed
 suicide on January 3, 1934. Stavisky was a Russian
 Jew, suspected of having close ties with highly
 placed members of the leftist government then in
 power. Rightist French organizations, such as the
 
ACTION FRANCAISE and the 
CROIX DE FEU, used the
 case to build large, violent antirepublican,
 anti-Jewish riots and were able to bring down the
 government, which was succeeded by a center
 coalition that ended the massive riots, and saved
 France from what was becoming an attempt to
 overthrow the republic.

steady state theory, cosmological theory that the
 universe is expanding and new matter continually
 being created to form new stars and galaxies. Put
 forward in 1920 by British physicist James 
JEANS,
 the steady state theory was most popular after
 1948, when Austrian-British mathematician Hermann
 Bondi, British astronomer Fred 
HOYLE, and
 Austrian-American astronomer Thomas Gold revised
 it. But the theory declined in popularity as 1960s
 discoveries tended to confirm the rival 
BIG BANG

 THEORY.

Steel Strike of 1919, a massive 
AMERICAN

 FEDERATION OF LABOR (AFL) strike for union
 recognition and the 8-hour day in the steel
 industry, led by William Z. 
FOSTER and involving
 an estimated 300,000-350,000 steelworkers. The
 strike began on September 22, 1919, and was broken
 by early January 1920, with a great deal of
 violence.

Steen, Alann, one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, an American University professor, who
 was kidnapped on January 24, 1988.

Stefansson, Vilhjalmur (1879-1962),
 Canadian-American explorer of Icelandic descent,
 famed for his Arctic explorations, most notably the
 5 years (1913-18) spent continuously above the
 Arctic Circle, living off the land and discovering
 several previously uncharted islands. He advised
 Pan American Airways on polar routes (1932-45) and
 the U.S. government on Arctic resources and, during
 and after World War II, on survival techniques for
 troops.

Steffens, Joseph Lincoln (1886-1936), U.S.
 journalist and leading 
MUCKRAKER, whose The Shame
 of the Cities (1904) and other early works were
 powerful indictments of the American monied elites
 of the time. He later became a socialist and after
 the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION supported the Soviet model
 of socialism.

Stein, Marc Aurel (1862-1943), British archeologist
 and explorer, who became the preeminent European
 historian, explorer, and rediscoverer of the
 ancient Asian Silk Road and of the cultures that
 met and interpenetrated along that travel and trade
 route for some thousands of years. Stein's work
 contributed greatly to the development of
 archeology, and to modern understandings of the
 real relationships between China and the other
 cultures of the ancient world. He was also a major
 antiques-taker, an activity much deplored in China;
 during several early 20th-century expeditions he
 took massive amounts of antiquities out of China's
 Tarim Basin, including the 
DIAMOND SUTRA, the
 oldest full printed book known, dated from about
 868 
A.D.

Steinbeck, John (1902-68), U.S. writer whose novel
 The Grapes of Wrath (1939) told the story of the
 "Okies," the 
DUST BOWL farmers forced to become
 migrants during the 
GREAT DEPRESSION. His book,
 and the film of the same name, were together one of
 the most powerful and effective populist statements
 of the period and by far his best work.

Steinberg, Joel, New York City lawyer who, on
 January 30, 1989, was convicted of the November 1,
 1987, beating-murder of 6-year-old Lisa Steinberg,
 whom he claimed to have adopted but had not.
 Steinberg's conviction rested largely on evidence
 given by his common-law wife, Hedda Nussbaum,
 herself severely beaten by Steinberg. The murder
 attracted enormous public attention in a nation
 newly sensitive to the issue of child abuse.

stellar evolution, theory that stars, rather than
 being fixed and immutable, evolve through a regular
 life sequence, first suggested in the 1880s but
 developed in the 20th century. As proposed by
 German physicist Hans 
BETHE in 1906 and
 independently by Carl von Weizsacker in 1912,
 interstellar gases condense to bodies in which
 thermonuclear reactions convert hydrogen to helium
 over a long "middle age." A star's final fate
 varies partly with its size. Stars about the size
 of our Sun dwindle to become white dwarfs and
 finally black dwarfs, essentially dead stars. A
 larger star-above a limit identified in 1931 by
 Subrahmanyan 
CHANDRASEKHAR-may explode massively
 in a nova or 
SUPERNOVA and then either become a
 
NEUTRON star (probably a 
PULSAR), with a heavy
 metal core surrounded by a halo of neutrons, or
 collapse upon itself into a 
BLACK HOLE. The key
 to stellar evolution theory is the relationship
 between brightness and stellar types, developed by
 Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung in 1911 and
 independently by U.S. astronomer Henry Norris
 Russell, who in 1913 depicted that relationship in
 the 
HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL DIAGRAM. The discoveries
 of Arthur 
EDDINGTON in 1924, that the luminosity
 of a star is directly related to its mass, and that
 stars are gaseous, their energy traveling to the
 surface not by convection but by 
RADIATION, also
 form part of the basis for the stellar evolution
 theory.

Stephenson, William ("Intrepid;" 1896-1989),
 Canadian inventor and industrialist who saw service
 as a flyer in World War I and began taking on
 assignments for British intelligence during visits
 to Germany in the 1930s. From 1940 he was chief
 foreign intelligence organizer for Great Britain in
 the Americas, working out of New York City, playing
 a major role in the development of the American
 
OFFICE OF STRATEGIC SERVICES and training
 espionage agents in Canada for placement in
 occupied Europe. His code name was "Intrepid," as
 in the title of his book, A Man Called Intrepid
 (1976).

Steptoe, Patrick (1913-88), British
 gynecologist-obstetrician who developed in vitro
 
FERTILIZATION, producing and later delivering the
 world's first 
TEST-TUBE BABY, Louise 
BROWN, in
 1978.

Stern Gang (Lehi; Fighters for the Freedom of
 Israel), a terrorist organization named after its
 founder, Abraham Stern, who was killed by British
 Palestinian occupation forces in 1942. Stern was an
 
IRGUN ZVAI LEUMI activist, who broke with the
 Irgun and formed his own organization in 1940, when
 the Irgun made a wartime decision to stop armed
 attacks on the British in Palestine. His
 organization continued on a terrorist course, its
 most notable actions being the assassination of
 Lord Moyne in 1944, its participation in the 
DEIR

 YASIN MASSACRE of 1948, and the assassination of
 
UNITED NATIONS mediator Folke 
BERNADOTTE in
 1948, an act that finally caused the group to be
 outlawed by the new Israeli government. Yitzhak
 
SHAMIR was a leading member of the Stern Gang.

steroids, class of compounds sharing some of the
 same chemical makeup, including 
CORTISONE and sex
 hormones such as 
TESTOSTERONE, ESTROGEN, and
 
PROGESTERONE; they often control metabolic and
 growth processes. Used since the 1950s to treat a
 wide range of ailments, steroids have increasingly
 been taken in large doses for nonmedical purposes
 by athletes wanting to maximize their speed,
 endurance, and power, even though the likely cost
 is ultimately a shortened or physically distorted
 life. The widespread abuse of steroids became an
 open scandal in the 1980s, with many athletes
 disqualified from competition for failing tests
 designed to detect steroids.

Stethem, Robert, U.S. Navy diver murdered in 1985
 by 
ISLAMIC HOLY WAR terrorists aboard a hijacked
 TWA airliner at Beirut airport.

Stevens, John Paul (1920- ), U.S. lawyer, who was
 appointed to the Seventh Circuit U.S. Court of
 Appeals in 1970. He was named to the Supreme Court
 by President Gerald 
FORD in 1975. On the Court he
 functioned generally as a moderate, often becoming
 a swing vote between liberals and conservatives on
 close decisions.

Stevenson, Adlai Ewing (1900-65), U.S. lawyer, who
 held a series of diplomatic posts during World War
 II and was an adviser to the 
U.S. UNITED NATIONS
 delegation 1946-47. He was Democratic governor of
 Illinois 1949-53. Stevenson was his party's
 presidential nominee in 1952 and 1956, losing twice
 to Dwight D. 
EISENHOWER, and served as U.S.
 ambassador to the United Nations 1961-65.

Stewart, Potter (1915- ), U.S. lawyer, who was
 appointed to the Sixth Circuit U.S. Court of
 Appeals in 1954 and to the Supreme Court by
 President Dwight D. 
EISENHOWER in 1958. On the
 Court he usually strictly construed the applicable
 law, while at the same time usually finding with
 the liberal majority, often in a separately written
 concurring opinion.

Stimson, Henry Lewis (1867-1950), U.S. lawyer and
 antitrust prosecutor during the administration of
 Theodore 
ROOSEVELT. He was secretary of war
 1910-13, secretary of state 1929-33, and in his
 seventies World War II secretary of war 1940-45. A
 Republican member of the Democratic cabinets of
 presidents 
ROOSEVELT and 
TRUMAN, he played a
 major role in developing the American war effort.


Stockton schoolyard murders (January 17, 1989), the
 mass murders of five schoolchildren in the
 playground of Cleveland Elementary School in
 Stockton, California, by Patrick Edward Purdy
 (alias West), who fired 110 rounds from his
 semiautomatic assault rifle in the course of the
 murders, and then committed suicide. All of the
 children killed were Southeast Asian refugees. In
 the wake of the murders, state and national
 pressure to ban such weapons grew, greatly assisted
 by the American law enforcement community.

Stolypin, Pyotr Arkadievich (1862-1911), Russian
 official, who was made premier by Czar 
NICHOLAS

 II in 1906 and thereafter forcibly suppressed
 dissent with such tactics as the mass hangings of
 revolutionaries. He reversed the reforms
 inaugurated after the czar's 
OCTOBER MANIFESTO of
 1905. Stolypin was assassinated in Kiev in
 September 1911.

Stone, Harlan Fiske (1872-1946), U.S. lawyer, law
 professor, and U.S. attorney general (1924), who
 was appointed to the Supreme Court by Calvin
 
COOLIDGE in 1925. A liberal, he found much of the
 
NEW DEAL legislation of the 1930s constitutional,
 also defending the individual protections afforded
 by the Bill of Rights. In 1941 Franklin D.
 
ROOSEVELT appointed him Chief Justice.

Stone, Isadore Feinstein (I. F. Stone; 1907-89),
 U.S. journalist and dissenter, who, after two
 decades as a staff writer and columnist on such
 then-liberal publications as The New York Post, The
 Nation, and PM, published his own newsletter, I. F.
 Stone's Weekly (1953-72). During that period he was
 the leading muckraking dissenter of his time,
 opposing the 
COLD WAR and the 
VIETNAM WAR, and
 so effectively exposing federal waste and
 corruption as to become required reading for tens
 of thousands of journalists, government people,
 academics, lobbyists, and other interested parties,
 whether they supported or opposed his political
 views.

Stonehenge, huge circle of standing stones (c.
 1800-1400 
B.C.) on England's Salisbury Plain,
 long known to be a religious site, but from 1965,
 after publication of Gerald 
HAWKINS's book
 Stonehenge Decoded, believed also to be an ancient
 observatory, aligned with solar and lunar eclipses.


Stopes, Marie Charlotte Carmichael (1880-1958),
 British 
BIRTH CONTROL advocate who in 1921
 founded Britain's first clinic for the
 dissemination of contraceptive information. Trained
 as a paleobotanist, from 1916 Stopes focused on
 birth control issues, writing two widely
 influential best-selling books, Married Love (1918)
 and Contraception: Its Theory, History and Practice
 (1923).

Storm Troopers (SA), the 
NAZI PARTY
 streetfighting and terrorist organization from
 1920, led by Ernst 
ROEHM, which played a
 substantial role in bringing Adolf 
HITLER to
 power in 1933. After power had been achieved, the
 army and SS soon felt the organization and its
 leaders to be a competitive force, and persuaded
 Hitler to authorize the murder of its leaders and
 many of its members. That was done on June 29-30,
 1934, the 
NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES, in what has
 since become described as the Nazi 
BLOOD PURGE.


strangeness, quality of certain subatomic
 
PARTICLES, first discovered in 1946 and described
 and given the label "strange" in 1953 by Murray
 
GELL-MANN, working independently of T. Nakano and
 Kasuhiko Nishijima. Part of the strangeness of
 these particles is their asymmetry which, in 1956,
 led to the downfall of the longheld idea that
 righthandedness and lefthandedness were
 indistinguishable in the universe.

Strategic Arms Limitation Agreement of 1979 (SALT
 II), a U.S.-U.S.S.R. agreement that placed
 limitations on the numbers of 
INTERCONTINENTAL

 BALLISTIC MISSILES (ICBMS), missile launchers, and
 
MULTIPLE INDEPENDENTLY TARGETABLE REENTRY

 VEHICLES (MIRVs).

Strategic Arms Limitation Agreements of 1972 (SALT
 I), U.S.-U.S.S.R. agreements limiting the use of
 
ANTIBALLISTIC MISSILE SYSTEMS (ABMs), and
 suspending additional 
INTERCONTINENTAL BALLISTIC

 MISSILE (ICBM) deployment for 5 years.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, or Star Wars),
 U.S. space-based nuclear defense system greatly
 favored by President Ronald 
REAGAN, which engaged
 great attention and much research outlay from 1983
 but did not, at least in the early years, yield
 promising results. It became a major stumbling
 block in U.S.-U.S.S.R. arms negotiations from the
 mid-1980s.

Stratten, Dorothy (1960-80), young Canadian
 actress, who while still a teenager, was found and
 exploited by Paul Snider, later her husband. She
 became a Playboy centerfold nude in 1979 and
 "Playmate of the Year" in 1980. She was beaten,
 raped, and murdered by her then-estranged husband
 on August 18, 1980; he then committed suicide.

Strauss, Franz Josef (1915-88), West German
 political leader, who served in the German army
 during World War II, co-founded the conservative
 Bavarian Christian Social Union in 1945, and
 entered the federal parliament 1949. He then rose
 through a series of posts to become defense
 minister 1956-62, in that position fostering West
 German rearmament and attempting to develop nuclear
 weapons. He was forced to resign in 1962, because
 of his major, unsuccessful attack on press freedom,
 in which he accused the magazine Der Spiegel and
 some of its personnel of treason. He was finance
 minister 1966-69, and chancellor of Bavaria from
 1978 until his death.

Streicher, Julius (1885-1946), Nazi propagandist
 and publisher of the racist, anti-Jewish newspaper,
 Der Sturmer, who played a major role in the
 development of German genocidal theories and
 actions. He was convicted of war crimes at the
 
NUREMBERG TRIALS and executed in 1946.

Strijdom, Johannes Gerhardus (1893-1958), South
 African lawyer, a committed segregationist as a
 
NATIONAL PARTY member of parliament 1929-58, and
 a rigid upholder of 
APARTHEID as prime minister
 1954-58.

Stroessner, Alfredo (1912- ), Paraguayan officer,
 who fought in the 
CHACO WAR and was armed forces
 commander in chief when he seized power in the
 military coup of 1954, then a ruling dictator for
 35 years, the longest period of rule in Paraguayan
 history. He was toppled by a military coup led by
 his second-in-command, General Andres Rodriguez, on
 February 2-3, 1989, and went into exile in Brazil.


Stroud, Robert ("Bird-man of Alcatraz;" 1890-1963),
 double murderer imprisoned for life (1909-63),
 often in solitary confinement, who became an
 ornithologist. From about 1920 Stroud began to
 raise canaries, then widened his scope to study
 diseases of birds in general, especially while at
 Leavenworth federal prison, the result being his
 classic Stroud's Digest of the Diseases of Birds
 (1942). After 1942, at Alcatraz, he was forbidden
 to work with birds or to publish. His life was the
 subject of a 1955 biography and a 1962 movie
 starring Burt Lancaster.

structuralism, wide-ranging philosophical movement
 of the 20th century, centered in France, that
 focused on the system or structure being studied,
 rather than its elements or content. Among the
 thinkers especially linked with structuralism are
 Claude 
LEVI-STRAUSS, Michel 
FOUCAULT, Roland
 
BARTHES, and Noam 
CHOMSKY.

STS (Space Transportation System), formal name of
 the series of U.S. spacecraft popularly called the
 
SPACE SHUTTLE, used from 1981.

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), U.S.
 reformist and then revolutionary student group,
 part of the 
NEW LEFT. Organized in Chicago in
 1960, in its early years SDS focused on civil
 rights and antipoverty issues, moved in the
 mid-1960s into anti-
VIETNAM WAR action, and in
 1969 fragmented into several small factions, one of
 them the 
WEATHERMEN.

submarine warfare, series of major naval
 confrontations during World War I and II. German
 submarines sank approximately 6,000 Allied ships
 totaling 12 million tons during World War I, losing
 200 submarines. The 4-year Battle of the Atlantic
 was by far the most important naval aspect of the
 war; the survival of Allied forces on the Western
 Front depended on it. Improved antisubmarine
 technology and the successful development of the
 convoy system in 1917 made it possible for supplies
 to continue to flow to Britain throughout the war.
 German submarine warfare also developed strong
 anti-German feeling in the United States and
 greatly contributed to American entry into the war.
 During World War II the Allies and Germans fought a
 second crucial Battle of the Atlantic; the combined
 forces of the British and American navies, coupled
 with adoption of the convoy system, ultimately
 defeated the German submarine fleet. This made it
 possible for the United States, functioning as the
 
ARSENAL OF DEMOCRACY, to supply its allies on
 both major fighting fronts. Enormous amounts of
 American supplies went to the Soviet Union via the
 
MURMANSK RUN; even larger quantities of supplies
 went directly to Great Britain, fueling continued
 resistance early in the war, then as part of the
 buildup to the multiple assaults on Europe that
 culminated in the 
NORMANDY invasion and Nazi
 defeat.

subway vigilante, the media-supplied name for
 
BERNHARD GOETZ.

Suchow, Battle of (December 1948-January 1949), the
 decisive battle of the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR, in
 which attacking Communist armies, approximately
 500,000 strong as they moved toward Canton, met and
 destroyed defending Nationalist armies of equal
 strength. Nationalist casualties were an estimated
 250,000 men, and the morale of the remaining
 Nationalist armies was greatly weakened.

Sudan (The Republic of Sudan), until 1954 a British
 protectorate, though nominally jointly governed by
 Egypt and Great Britain. Internal autonomy was
 gained in 1954, and was followed by the beginning
 of what would become decades of civil war.
 Independence came on January 1, 1956.

Sudanese Civil War (1955- ), the long continuing
 insurgency that began shortly after Sudan achieved
 full autonomy from British-Egyptian rule in 1954.
 The civil war pitted the Christian and animist
 Black provinces of the south against the dominant
 Moslems of the north, who controlled the Sudanese
 government. In 1972 President Gaafar Mohammed
 al-
NIMEIRY seemed to conclude the war, with a
 treaty that promised full autonomy for the southern
 provinces, but in 1980 his government reneged on
 certain key elements of the agreement. This stirred
 renewed rebel activity, which by 1985 had burst
 into full-scale civil war. The war was accompanied
 by continued widespread starvation suffered by
 local and refugee populations, including an
 estimated 1 million refugees from Chad and
 Ethiopia, and by periodic blockage of international
 relief shipments by the warring parties.

Sudetenland, a single name given by the Nazis to
 several predominantly German-speaking areas that
 had become part of Czechoslovakia after World War
 I. Some of them were near the Sudetes Mountains,
 and most of them were near the Czech-Polish border.
 Although the Sudeten Nazi party won large
 concessions from the Czech government in 1937 and
 1938, Germany insisted on "self-determination,"
 meaning annexation; at 
MUNICH, on September
 29-30, 1938, France and Great Britain forced
 Czechoslovakia to accede to the Nazi demands; after
 Munich, the onset of World War II was clearly in
 sight.

Suez Crisis (July-November 1967), a Middle East
 confrontation that began in late July 1967, when
 the United States and Great Britain withdrew
 promised financing for Egypt's 
ASWAN HIGH DAM. In
 retaliation, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel
 
NASSER nationalized the Suez Canal on July 26,
 creating an impasse that negotiations failed to
 resolve. France and Britain resolved to take the
 canal by force; Israel agreed to invade the Sinai,
 threatening the canal and providing a rationale for
 Anglo-French military intervention. Israel
 fulfilled its agreement, invading Egypt on October
 29, and beginning the 
SIX-DAY WAR (
SECOND

 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR). France and Britain then
 proceeded to attack Egyptian airfields and to move
 on the canal with air- and seaborne forces, as
 planned; by November 6, the Egyptians had evacuated
 the Sinai, and Anglo-French forces had landed at
 Port Said. The United States, however, sharply
 opposed the action and forced all three nations to
 withdraw, a 
UNITED NATIONS peacekeeping force
 then moving into the area. The withdrawal had
 enormous emotional and political repercussions in
 Great Britain, where there was widespread feeling
 that this bending to the will of the United States
 was a humiliation that marked the end of British
 great-power status. The resignation of British
 prime minister Anthony 
EDEN, which soon followed,
 was widely thought to be at least partly due to his
 handling of the Suez crisis, although ill health
 was the stated reason for his resignation.

Suharto (1921- ), Indonesian soldier, in the Dutch
 army, the Japanese occupation army during World War
 II, and the insurgent army during the 
INDONESIAN

 WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. A general by 1965, he
 commanded army forces in putting down the attempted
 Communist Party of Indonesia coup of 1965 and
 during the massive political massacres that
 followed. He took power from 
SUKARNO in March
 1966, thereafter controlling the country (1966- ).
 As president he turned his country away from China
 and the Soviet Union and toward the West, continued
 to suppress domestic opposition, and banned all but
 government-financed political parties.

Sukarno (1901-70), Indonesian engineer, socialist,
 and active nationalist from the mid-1920s, who
 supported the Japanese during World War II, and in
 August 1945 proclaimed Indonesian independence. He
 then led his country through the 
INDONESIAN WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE, and became the first president of
 Indonesia in 1949. As president he faced continuing
 Moslem insurgency and severe economic problems, as
 he attempted to build a socialist state. In the
 late 1950s he moved away from democracy, in 1959
 entering a period of government by decree, which he
 called "guided democracy," while developing strong
 ties with the Communist Party of Indonesia and with
 China and the Soviet Union. After the attempted
 Communist coup of 1965 and the anti-Communist
 
INDONESIAN POLITICAL MASSACRES that followed, he
 lost much of his popularity and power. He was
 deposed in March 1966, turning power over to
 General 
SUHARTO without resistance and leaving
 public life.

sulfa drug, an early "wonder drug," a kind of
 antibacterial medicine, the first of which was
 discovered by German chemist Gerhard Domagk in
 1932. Four sulfa drugs were developed by the end of
 World War II, and though their effect was
 overshadowed by the development of 
PENICILLIN and
 other 
ANTIBIOTICS, sulfa drugs are still widely
 used, especially where antibiotics are ineffective,
 even though some sulfa-resistant bacteria have
 developed.

Sullivan, Harry Stack (1892-1949), U.S.
 psychiatrist, who helped develop the interpersonal
 school of psychiatry. Seeing mental disturbances as
 resulting not from inner causes but from a person's
 relations with others, Sullivan pioneered in the
 use of group therapy.

Sullivan, Louis Wade (1933- ), U.S. physician,
 medical professor, and administrator, who had been
 dean of medicine at Morehouse College since 1974,
 when named secretary of health and human services
 by president George 
BUSH on December 22, 1988.

Summerhill School, self-governing child-centered
 school founded in England's Sussex by A. S. 
NEILL
 in 1921, the premise being "to make the school fit
 the child" instead of the reverse. Though too
 revolutionary to be widely copied, Neill's
 experiences at Summerhill still considerably
 contributed to the gradual relaxation and
 increasing openness of 20th-century education,
 especially in the United States.

Sunday, William Ashley "Billy" (1862-1935), U.S.
 Christian fundamentalist revivalist, a former
 professional baseball player, who from 1896
 conducted often-huge revival meetings throughout
 the United States, becoming the best-known
 revivalist of his time.

Sununu, John H. (1939- ), U.S. engineer, university
 professor, New Hampshire state legislator
 (1973-74), and governor (1983-89), who became a
 member of the 
BUSH 1988 presidential campaign
 staff and was named White House chief of staff on
 December 17, 1988.

Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925), the Chinese republican
 revolutionary who led the movement to overthrow the
 Ch'ing (Manchu) dynasty, to bring democracy to
 China, and to bring China into the mainstream of
 the modern world. He spent some time in Hawaii as a
 youth, trained to become a doctor in China and Hong
 Kong, and began his revolutionary career back in
 Hawaii, in 1894, founding the 
REVIVE CHINA

 SOCIETY. His first attempt to organize a
 revolution was in Canton in 1895; it quickly
 failed, and he fled abroad. From then until 1911 he
 lived abroad, gathering money and support for the
 republican revolution and from 1900 to 1911
 organizing eleven more attempted revolts in China.
 From 1905 he headed a group of revolutionary
 organizations loosely formed into the Alliance
 Society. In 1911, learning of the Wuhan revolt
 against the Manchu government, he returned home to
 a revolutionary China and became provisional
 president of the new republic. To unite the
 revolutionary forces, he agreed to step down in
 favor of former government minister 
YUAN

 SHIH-K'AI, and Yuan  became president after the
 resignation of the emperor in 1912. He parted from
 Yuan in 1913, leading a second revolution, which
 was defeated, and then fled to Japan; he returned
 to China after Yuan's death in 1916. He spent the
 next 7 years attempting to form and re-form a
 republican government. In 1923 he accepted Soviet
 aid and with it the support of the Chinese
 Communist party. He reorganized the 
KUOMINTANG
 along Soviet lines and set about organizing the
 
NORTHERN EXPEDITION, which, under the leadership
 of 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK, would bring China under
 Kuomintang control and at the same time begin the
 22-year-long 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR. But Sun did not
 live to see the beginning of the expedition, dying
 of cancer in Peking, on March 12, 1925, from then
 on to be regarded as father of the Chinese
 revolution by Nationalists and Communists alike.

Sun Yat-sen, Madame, the name by which Ch'ing-ling
 
SOONG, the wife of 
SUN YAT-SEN, is best known.


superconductivity, loss of resistance to
 electricity in certain materials when cooled; first
 discovered in 1911 by Dutch physicist Heike
 Kamerlingh Onnes, though a working theory of the
 phenomenon was not developed until 1957. To achieve
 superconductivity-that is, to lose little or no
 electrical energy to resistance or
 friction-materials had to be cooled to near
 absolute zero; that being very difficult and
 expensive, superconductive materials had limited
 applications for some decades, notably in particle
 
ACCELERATORS and 
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE
 imaging machines. In 1986 two IBM researchers, K.
 Alex Muller and J. Georg Bednorz, found new ceramic
 materials that became superconductive at much
 higher temperatures, for which they were awarded
 the 1987 Nobel Prize for Physics. Other scientists
 quickly found similar materials and at even higher
 temperatures as they began exploring for some whose
 physical properties would make them suitable for
 everyday use, with the promise of revolutionary
 changes in many areas.

supernova, explosion of a massive star in a late
 stage of 
STELLAR EVOLUTION, such as that thought
 to have produced the Crab Nebula. The term was
 introduced in 1934 by German-American astronomer
 Walter Baade and Bulgarian-Swiss astrophysicist
 Fritz Zwicky, whose predictions that 
NEUTRON
 stars result after supernovas was confirmed in
 1968.

supersonic transport (SST), 
AIRPLANE capable of
 traveling faster than the speed of sound-that is,
 at 
MACH 1 or above-creating a shock wave called a
 
SONIC BOOM. U.S. Air Force captain Charles
 
YEAGER first broke the 
SOUND BARRIER in a
 research jet, the Bell X-1, in 1947, but the first
 supersonic airliner was the Soviet Tupolev TU-144,
 unveiled in 1968. The first regularly scheduled
 supersonic airliner was the Anglo-French Concorde,
 which went into service in 1976. The United States
 had decided in 1971 not to pursue supersonic
 transport development. Craft traveling at Mach 5 or
 more are termed hypersonic.

Suriname (Republic of Suriname), until 1975, Dutch
 Guiana, a Netherlands colony, with internal
 autonomy from 1954. It became an independent state
 on November 25, 1975.

Surveyor, series of U.S. unmanned spacecraft
 exploring the 
MOON in the 1960s, developing the
 techniques for making a "soft" landing on the Moon,
 preparatory to the 
APOLLO flights.

Sutherland, Thomas, one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, American University agriculture dean,
 who was kidnapped on September 9, 1986.

Suzman, Helen (Helen Gavronsky; 1917- ), South
 African economist and liberal, who won her first
 parliamentary seat in 1953 and founded the
 Progressive party in 1959; it became part of the
 opposition Progressive Federal party in 1977. She
 was a leading opponent of 
APARTHEID and of
 suppression of political and civil liberties, a
 proponent of a democratic, multiracial South
 African solution.

Svoboda, Ludvik (1895-1979), Czech officer who,
 during World War II, led the Czech corps fighting
 beside Soviet forces on the Eastern Front. He was
 defense minister in the postwar government and
 stayed on after the Communist coup of 1948. He
 survived the purges of the 
SLANSKY SHOW TRIALS
 period and was Czech president 1968-75.

Swaggart scandal, the February 1988 scandal
 following charges of sexual misconduct on the part
 of television evangelist Jimmy Swaggart, accused of
 consorting with at least one prostitute, a credit
 quickly claimed by New Orleans prostitute Debra
 Murphree. Swaggart tearfully delivered a nationally
 televised "
I HAVE SINNED!" speech on February 21,
 1988. In March his ministry was revoked by the
 Assemblies of God, removing him from his pulpit and
 from the air for a year. Swaggart ignored the order
 and went back to televangelism on May 22, 1988,
 soon proving able to hold his audience.

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
 (1971), a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision
 validating a school busing plan for Charlotte,
 North Carolina, which had been ordered by a lower
 court.

SWAPO, initials of the 
SOUTHWEST AFRICA PEOPLE'S

 ORGANIZATION OF NAMIBIA, by which the organization
 is best known.

swastika, the 
NAZI PARTY insignia, adopted by
 Adolf 
HITLER in 1919, which thereafter became the
 symbol of his party and therefore in 1933 of the
 Nazi German state. The word is Sanskrit, and both
 word and symbol were thought by the Nazis to be
 "Aryan," although the symbol itself had been used
 by several of the world's peoples for some
 thousands of years before the Nazis adopted it. In
 German hands the symbol came to represent mass
 murder, fascism, and war, becoming the most hated
 and feared symbol of the 20th century.

Swaziland (Kingdom of Swaziland), until 1967 a
 British protectorate, then gaining internal
 autonomy and becoming an independent state and
 
COMMONWEALTH member on September 6, 1968.

Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA), the organization
 that kidnapped Patricia "Patty" 
HEARST in 1974.


Symington, William Stuart (1901-88), U.S.
 industrialist, who entered government as head of
 the post-World War II Surplus Property Board and
 stayed on in a series of appointive posts during
 the 
TRUMAN administration. He was a Missouri
 Democratic U.S. senator 1953-77 and an unsuccessful
 candidate for his party's presidential nomination
 in 1960. He was an arms race proponent during the
 early years of the 
COLD WAR, but was also an
 opponent of American involvement in Vietnam.

syndicalism, a movement aiming to organize workers
 into unions capable of ultimately paralyzing and
 destroying existing governments by means of the
 general strike and then taking control of the means
 of production. In practice, syndicalists and
 anarchists generally operated together as
 
ANARCHO-SYNDICALISTS, whether or not so
 describing themselves, as occurred in the French
 and Spanish labor movements before World War II and
 in the American 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD
 (IWW).

Syndicate, The, an alternative name for the U.S.
 
MAFIA.

Synod of Barmen, anti-Nazi church coalition formed
 in 1934 by European religious leaders such as Karl
 
BARTH and Martin 
NIEMOLLER.

syphilis, worldwide type of venereal disease, often
 fatal if untreated, for which cures were found in
 the 20th century. The microorganism causing
 syphilis was first observed by German
 bacteriologists Fritz R. Schaudinn and P. Erich
 Hoffmann in 1905, and in 1906 their countryman,
 August von Wasserman, developed the first blood
 test for the disease. In 1910 German bacteriologist
 Paul 
EHRLICH introduced the first drug to cure
 syphilis, an arsenic compound called salvarsan but
 quickly dubbed the "magic bullet." Treatment was
 long and difficult, however, involving a series of
 injections. Later 
PENICILLIN was found to cure
 syphilis, as do some other 
ANTIBIOTICS. However,
 social problems hindered treatment of those who
 most need it, so syphilis and other venereal
 diseases remained common around the world, and the
 number of cases increased in the last quarter of
 the century.

Syria (Syrian Arab Republic), until the end of
 World War I, part of the Ottoman Empire, then
 becoming a French-administered 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 mandate territory, and an independent state on
 April 17, 1946. During the period 1958-61 Syria and
 
EGYPT briefly joined in the 
UNITED ARAB

 REPUBLIC. After the March 1963 military coup,
 Syria became an Arab Islamic socialist state, led
 by the 
BA'ATH PARTY.

Szilard, Leo (1867-1964), Hungarian-American
 nuclear physicist, who played a major role in the
 development of the 
ATOMIC BOMB. A student, then
 professor, in Germany, Szilard fled the Germans in
 1933, working first in England and later in the
 United States, joining in early work on 
NUCLEAR

 FISSION with Enrico 
FERMI and others. Szilard
 drafted the letter sent by Albert 
EINSTEIN to
 president Franklin 
ROOSEVELT urging the United
 States to develop the atomic bomb before the
 Germans did, and when approval came he actively
 participated in the 
MANHATTAN PROJECT. Afterward
 he pressed for demilitarization and international
 control of nuclear technology, eventually becoming
 a leader in antinuclear peace activities and
 forsaking physics for biology.

Taeyokale hotel fire (December 25, 1971), a fire at
 the Taeyokale Hotel, at Seoul, South Korea, that
 killed 163 people, the world's worst hotel fire to
 date.

Tafari, Ras, the given name of Ethiopian leader
 
HAILE SELASSIE.

Taft, Robert Alphonso (1889-1953), U.S. lawyer, the
 son of President William Howard 
TAFT; he was an
 Ohio Republican state legislator (1921-38), and
 senator (1939-53). He was a conservative, sharply
 opposed to Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT and the 
NEW

 DEAL, and an isolationist who opposed any moves he
 felt might lead to American involvement in World
 War II. After the war he continued in opposition,
 winning passage of the 
TAFT-HARTLEY ACT in 1947,
 which sharply limited the New Deal's labor
 legislation.

Taft, William Howard (1857-1930), U.S. lawyer and
 judge who was an Ohio superior court judge before
 becoming federal solicitor general (1890-1892),
 federal district court judge (1892-1900), colonial
 administrator of the Philippines (1900-04),
 secretary of war (1904-09), 27th president of the
 United States (1909-13), and chief justice of the
 United States (1921- 1930). A Republican, Taft
 defeated Democrat William Jennings 
BRYAN in the
 1908 presidential election. He won the contested
 Republican nomination of 1912 from Theodore
 
ROOSEVELT but lost the election to Democrat
 Woodrow 
WILSON. As president he initiated few
 major changes, instead backing away from the
 reforms of the previous Roosevelt administration
 and occupying a very weak position; he suffered
 from a growing split with the Progressives in his
 own party and Democratic control of the House of
 Representatives for most of his term. As chief
 justice his main contribution was administrative;
 no landmark opinions bear his name or imprint.

Taft-Hartley Act (1947), a series of major
 amendments to the 
WAGNER ACT, that outlawed the
 closed shop, jurisdictional strikes, and secondary
 boycotts; made the union shop more difficult to
 institute; denied protection for wildcat strikes;
 reinstituted antistrike injunctions in some
 situations, partly nullifying the 
NORRIS-LA

 GUARDIA ACT of 1932; included anti-Communist
 provisions; and in aggregate made it far more
 difficult for unions to organize and to use the
 strike weapon.

Takahashi, Korekiyo (1854-1936), Japanese banker
 and public official, head of the Bank of Japan, who
 became finance minister 1913-14 and again in 1918.
 He was prime minister 1921-22, and finance minister
 in several cabinets. He was assassinated during the
 failed young officers' coup of 1936.

Takeshita, Noboru (1924- ), Japanese political
 leader, in parliament from 1958, who held a series
 of cabinet-level posts, including the finance
 ministry, before becoming prime minister on
 November 6, 1987. As prime minister he continued to
 negotiate with the United States regarding trade
 imbalances, developed further economic ties with
 the People's Republic of China, and developed some
 internal tax reforms, but from July 1988 his
 otherwise relatively uneventful administration was
 dominated by the developing 
RECRUIT STOCK

 SCANDAL, which caused the resignations of his
 finance, economics, and justice ministers, some top
 business leaders, and several key aides to both
 Takeshita and his predecessor, Yasuhiro 
NAKASONE.
 On April 24, 1989, after the widening and deepening
 scandal had directly involved Takeshita, he
 announced that he would resign.

Tambo, Oliver (1917- ), South African lawyer, who
 became active in the national movement in the 1950s
 in close collaboration with Nelson 
MANDELA, being
 banned or imprisoned for much of the period. He
 became a deputy president of the 
AFRICAN NATIONAL

 CONGRESS (ANC) in 1958 and went into exile abroad
 in 1960, functioning for the ANC out of Zambia and
 becoming president of the ANC in 1967. During the
 next two decades he led the ANC in what became a
 guerrilla war against the South African government,
 including military assaults, terrorist attacks
 against noncombatants, and the organization of
 internal resistance movements.

Tampico Incident, the arrest of several U.S.
 sailors at Tampico, Mexico, in 1914, which provided
 the pretext for the American occupation of 
VERA

 CRUZ.

Tampomas 2 sinking (January 27, 1981), sinking of
 the Indonesian passenger 
TAMPOMAS 2, which caught
 fire in the Java Sea during a storm; after almost 2
 days of rescue attempts, the ship finally sank, and
 an estimated 580 of its 1,200 passengers and crew
 died.

Tanaka, Kakuei (1918- ), Japanese entrepreneur, who
 went into politics in 1947 and held ministerial
 posts from 1962 to 1972, then becoming prime
 minister 1972 to 1974. He resigned under attack for
 financial malfeasance while in office. He was
 indicted in 1976 for accepting bribes from the
 Lockheed Corporation while prime minister, and was
 convicted in 1983 after a long trial that exposed a
 major scandal but did not dislodge his Liberal
 Democratic party from power.

Tanganyika, a former German East African colony,
 that after World War I became a
 British-administered 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS mandate
 terrritory; after World War II it became a 
UNITED

 NATIONS trust territory. It gained independence in
 1961, and merged with 
ZANZIBAR and Pemba to form
 the new nation of 
TANZANIA on April 26, 1964.

Tangshan earthquake (July 28, 1976), a series of
 earthquakes that destroyed much of the center of
 this North Chinese city, killing a reported 242,000
 people and injuring 164,000 more; the actual
 figures may be even higher.

tanks, armored vehicles running on tracks and
 therefore able to carry soldiers and weapons over
 rough terrain and through many types of barriers.
 The tank was first developed in Britain by Ernest
 Dunlop Swinton, with Winston 
CHURCHILL's support,
 in 1915, though such ideas had been proposed and
 rejected by the governments of several countries
 from the turn of the century. The British and
 French, who built their own models, first used
 tanks in the Battle of the 
SOMME in 1916, but
 their first great success was in 1917 at 
CAMBRAI,
 where a concentrated force of Allied tanks broke
 through the 
HINDENBURG LINE. The Germans
 sometimes fought back in captured Allied tanks. In
 the interwar period arguments raged about light
 versus heavy tanks and about how to use tanks. The
 Germans and Russians learned the effectiveness of
 massed tank thrusts in the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR.
 Such lessons laid the basis for Hitler's
 
BLITZKRIEG attacks with armored 
PANZER units
 against Poland and later Russia and the striking
 desert tactics of Erwin 
ROMMEL in North Africa.
 By contrast, although the Allies had far more
 tanks, they often dispersed them to support
 infantry, diluting their effectiveness; this
 included the Russians, most of whose experienced
 generals had been removed during 
STALIN's purges.
 The largest single tank battle occurred near Kursk,
 in the U.S.S.R., in 1943, involving almost 3,000
 tanks. Tanks also were widely used by the Allies in
 Western Europe following the 1944 
NORMANDY

 INVASION, by the Russians in Manchuria against the
 Japanese in 1945, and to a lesser extent by U.S.
 forces in the Pacific, often with amphibious
 vehicles. Afterward huge numbers of tanks remained
 in place in Europe, the trend being toward lighter
 vehicles, sometimes basically armored personnel
 carriers armed with 
GUIDED MISSILES. Tanks were
 heavily used in battle by the Arabs and Israelis
 and by the Indians and Pakistanis in the 1950s and
 1960s, but changing patterns of war and defenses
 made tanks less important militarily in places such
 as Vietnam.

Tannenberg, Battle of (August 26-31, 1914), a
 decisive early battle on the Eastern Front in World
 War I, at Tannenberg, in East Prussia, in which the
 Russian Second Army suffered a major defeat, losing
 an estimated 125,000 men and a great deal of
 much-needed war material. The Russian commander,
 General Alexander Samsonov, committed suicide after
 his troops were surrounded and his command cut to
 pieces by better-led, better-trained,
 better-equipped German forces under generals Paul
 von 
HINDENBURG and Erich 
LUDENDORFF.

Tanzania (United Republic of Tanzania), a union of
 
TANGANYIKA and 
ZANZIBAR. Until World War I
 Tanganyika was a German colony; after the war it
 became a British mandate territory, and after World
 War II a British-administered 
UNITED NATIONS
 trust territory, achieving independence and
 
COMMONWEALTH status in 1961. The Tanganyikan
 independence movement was led by President Julius
 Kambarage 
NYRERE, who led Tanganyika and then
 Tanzania until 1985. The islands of Zanzibar and
 Pemba were a British colony until gaining
 independence and Commonwealth membership in 1963.
 On April 26, 1964, the two new countries merged
 into the United Republic of Tanganyika and
 Zanzibar, later renamed Tanzania.

tape recording, use of magnetized tape to record
 sounds or signals for later reproduction. As early
 as 1900 Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen had a U.S.
 patent to record using a magnetized wire, but the
 first known use of magnetic tape recording was
 during World War II by the Germans, to broadcast at
 chosen times speeches by Hitler and other Nazi
 leaders. Spurred by this use, the Ampex Corporation
 developed a tape recorder in the United States in
 1948, first used by ABC for the Bing Crosby Show.
 By 1950 magnetic tape was being used for scientific
 data and tried out with the 
UNIVAC computer,
 being put into more general use with computers from
 1956. Video tape recorders were first developed in
 1956, though they did not become widespread among
 consumers until the 1980s. In the early 1960s
 music-quality tape cartridges were developed for
 personal use; cassettes were introduced by the
 Dutch firm of Philips in 1963, taking a large share
 of the market once held by long- playing records
 and becoming seemingly ubiquitous with the arrival
 of hand- size tape recorder-players.

Taranto bombing (November 11, 1940), World War II
 attack of Italian naval units at Taranto, Italy, by
 British carrier-based bombers. Three battleships
 were sunk and several smaller ships damaged in a
 major disaster for the Italian navy.

Tarawa, Battle of (November 20-24, 1943), World War
 II attack that began with an extremely costly U.S.
 Marine amphibious assault on heavily fortified
 Betio Island. Because of the shallowness of the
 water near the landing area, the American landing
 craft could not even reach the beach, and the
 Americans suffered many casualties as they waded
 ashore. There were over 3,000 Marine casualties,
 almost 1,000 of them dead, over 4,500 Japanese
 dead, and few Japanese survivors, as almost all of
 the island's defenders chose to fight to the death.


Tarbell, Ida Minerva (1857-1944), U.S. journalist
 and 
MUCKRAKER, whose History of the Standard Oil
 Company (1904) was one of the first major exposes
 of U.S. monopolistic practices, helping to create
 the climate within which trustbusting activities
 flourished.

Tasaday, small hunting-and-gathering tribe found in
 the Philippines in 1972 and regarded by many as
 relics from the primitive life-style of the Stone
 Age. From at least 1986, some charged that the
 Tasaday had been a hoax, though others pointed out
 that by then they had had 14 years of contact with
 the modern world.

Tate, Sharon, U.S. actress killed by mass murderer
 Charles 
MANSON on August 9, 1969.

Taussig, Helen Brooke (1898-1986), U.S. pediatric
 cardiologist who first diagnosed the heart defects
 that led to blue pallor (cyanosis) in 
BLUE BABIES
 and who with her surgeon-colleague Albert 
BLALOCK
 devised an operation to correct them.

Tawney, Richard Henry (1880-1962), British
 historian, whose work in economic history as it
 influenced and intertwined with the history of
 ideas is expressed in his best known work, Religion
 and the Rise of Capitalism (1926). He was active in
 socialist and reform causes and was president of
 the Worker' Educational Association 1928-44.

Taylor, Maxwell Davenport (1901-86), U.S. officer,
 who commanded the 101st Airborne Division during
 the invasion of 
NORMANDY in 1944, and throughout
 the subsequent European campaign. He later
 commanded the American Eighth Army in Korea, was
 chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1962-64, and
 was American ambassador to South Vietnam, 1964-66.


Teapot Dome, a cabinet-level U.S. bribery scandal,
 in which Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall
 in 1922 took bribes amounting to $400,000 in return
 for leases on federal oil reserves, without
 competitive bidding. He granted Harry F. Sinclair a
 lease on the Teapot Dome, Wyoming, federal oil
 reserve, and Edward O. Doheny, a lease on the Elk
 Hills, California, reserve. A Senate investigation
 led by senator Thomas J. Walsh disclosed the leases
 and bribes; prosecutions followed after a Justice
 Department coverup failed. The Supreme Court
 nullified the leases in 1927. Fall was convicted of
 bribery in 1929; Sinclair eventually served a short
 term for contempt of court.

Tedder, Arthur William (1890-1967), British air
 officer, who saw service in World War I. During
 World War II he commanded British air forces in
 North Africa, all Allied air forces in the
 Mediterranean, then all Allied air forces in the
 European theater, as deputy supreme commander to
 Dwight D. 
EISENHOWER.

Tehran Conference (November 28-December 1, 1943),
 the first 
ROOSEVELT- CHURCHILL-STALIN wartime
 summit meeting, at which several major decisions
 were reached, affecting the course of World War II
 and the shape of the postwar world. The conferees
 agreed to set May 1944 as the time of the coming
 Allied invasion of Western Europe, Stalin agreed to
 make war on Japan after the defeat of Germany, the
 basic structure of the 
UNITED NATIONS was agreed
 on, and Iranian, Polish, Yugoslav, and several
 other postwar independence and territorial matters
 were partially settled.

Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre (1881-1955), French
 paleontologist and theologian, best known for his
 view that humans and indeed the whole universe are
 evolving toward spiritual unity. Because his Jesuit
 superiors mistrusted his attempt to reconcile
 evolution and Catholicism, he was allowed to
 publish only strictly scientific papers during his
 lifetime. His philosophical works were mostly
 published posthumously. Stationed in China from the
 1920s, he helped locate and place in context the
 early human fossil remains known as 
PEKING MAN,
 found in 1927.

television, electrical transmission of pictures and
 sound; explored since the 1880s but achieved only
 in the 20th century, when it became a major force
 in linking the peoples of the Earth into what
 Marshall 
MCLUHAN called a 
GLOBAL VILLAGE.
 Building on the previous two decades' developments,
 Scottish inventor John Logie 
BAIRD and American
 inventor Charles Francis Jenkins both developed
 experimental versions of television in 1923. Baird
 made the first public demonstration of television
 in London in 1926 and the first trans-Atlantic
 transmission 2 years later. Early types of
 television used a crude mechanical method of
 transmitting signals; a rotating disk converted
 light into electrical impulses, causing a
 flickering image. A more successful approach,
 employed by Russian-American inventor Vladimir
 
ZWORYKIN, involved electron-beam scanning, using
 a 
CATHODE RAY TUBE. In 1923-24, Zworykin patented
 the two basic elements of modern television: the
 iconoscope camera tube and the kinescope picture
 tube. By 1932 he had actually built the first
 all-electronic television. Technical improvements
 and experimental broadcasts were made through the
 1930s. Color television was developing, too. A
 German patent was filed as early as 1904; both
 Zworykin and Baird had color television patents in
 the 1920s, with Baird making a color television
 demonstration in 1928; several Bell Laboratories
 scientists made key innovations in 1929; and CBS
 Laboratories' Peter 
GOLDMARK made a successful
 color broadcast in 1940. In Britain television
 service was begun in 1936 under the
 quasi-governmental 
BRITISH BROADCASTING

 CORPORATION (BBC), which the following year
 broadcast the coronation procession  of 
GEORGE

 VI. In the United States, Zworykin's RCA
 television was demonstrated at New York City's
 World's Fair in 1939, the year of the first
 television pictures of a U.S. president (Franklin
 
ROOSEVELT), a major league baseball game, and a
 college football game-and the first television sets
 for sale to the public. Network television made its
 official debut with an NBC broadcast from the
 General Electric station, WRGB, at Schenectady, New
 York, on February 1, 1940; by mid-year there were
 22 other American television stations. That year
 also saw the first broadcast of presidential
 conventions (not live, but television pictures of
 film). Commercial television authorized by the
 
FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION (FCC) formally
 began on July 1, 1941, with 15 hours of programming
 from New York City's WNBT. CBS television reported
 the attack of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, but
 World War II temporarily halted the spread of
 television, with all but six stations being shut
 down. Not until 1945 did NBC put together its first
 "network," linking New York, Philadelphia, and
 Schenectady. But by 1949, more than 1,000,000
 television receivers were in use in the United
 States; by 1951, that number had jumped to
 10,000,000, reaching 50,000,000 by 1959. In Britain
 the BBC resumed television broadcasting in 1946,
 joined in 1954 by commercial television stations.
 Color television, with its more complex technology,
 developed more slowly, but by 1971 the sales of
 color television in America surpassed those of
 black and white. By that time television had
 changed the face of the modern world. In addition
 to the popular entertainment programs, viewers saw
 presidential conventions, space launchings, wars,
 uprisings, sports contests, and myriad other events
 live or on 
MAGNETIC TAPE (introduced in 1956).
 The 
EISENHOWER-NIXON presidential campaign of
 1952 was the first to be televised live; by the
 1980s, presidential campaigns had become largely
 media  (for which read "television") events. Images
 from Joseph 
MCCARTHY to Oliver 
NORTH could be
 made-and broken-on the "tube." Distant parts of the
 world were linked ever more closely together after
 1962, when the 
SATELLITE TELSTAR made its first
 trans-Atlantic broadcasts, both black-and-white and
 color, between the United States and England and
 France. By the 1980s multiple satellites allowed
 immediate two-way communication, not simple
 transmission, between distant parts of the world.
 Bell Labs' 1969 development of an imager 
COMPUTER
 chip led to the development of ever smaller
 hand-held television cameras, including, by 1985, a
 paperback-size video camera for home use. The use
 of satellites and hand-held television cameras led
 to a proliferation of local news coverage, by the
 1980s decreasing somewhat the power of the
 networks. American and British programming has been
 widely exported and, for better or worse, has
 played a major role in Westernizing many other
 cultures and in helping to make English the
 unofficial world language. The power of television
 as a propaganda tool has caused many governments
 around the world to keep it under state control;
 other countries mix commercial with nonprofit
 systems. From 1975, with Sony's introduction of the
 first video cassette recorder (VCR), many people
 were able to exercise more choice in their viewing,
 being able to rent or buy videotaped material or to
 record programs for later watching. Cable and
 satellite dishes also made available a much wider
 range of programming, cutting into the networks'
 traditional share of the viewing audience. Though
 widely criticized for its excesses in
 sensationalizing news and for creating mindless,
 often violent entertainments, television has
 probably been underrated for its role in increasing
 viewers' understanding of themselves and the world
 around them.

television quiz show scandal, scandal generated by
 1959 New York grand jury and congressional
 investigations of charges that some of the most
 popular televison quiz shows of the period were
 "fixed," by show staff coaching of contestants.
 Charles Van Doren, winning contestant on the
 "$64,000 Question," confessed to such fixing on
 November 2, 1959, ending the quiz show fad until
 their resurgence in the 1970s and 1980s.

Teller, Edward (1908- ), Hungarian-American nuclear
 physicist, called the father of the 
HYDROGEN

 BOMB. After training in Germany and study with
 Niels 
BOHR in Denmark, Teller emigrated from Nazi
 Germany in 1935, settling in the United States.
 Working with Enrico 
FERMI on 
NUCLEAR FISSION
 from 1941, he joined the 
MANHATTAN PROJECT,
 working to develop the 
ATOMIC BOMB. As early as
 1942 Teller and Fermi conceived of a bomb they
 called the "Super," using 
NUCLEAR FUSION with an
 atomic bomb as a trigger. From 1949 he led
 development of this hydrogen bomb, in the process
 breaking bitterly with J. Robert 
OPPENHEIMER, and
 for decades pushed for development of nuclear
 weapons and nuclear energy. Late in his life he was
 a key theoretician behind the 
STAR WARS proposal.


Telstar, first communications 
SATELLITE to relay
 
TELEVISION signals, including color, launched
 from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962; a precursor
 of the worldwide 
INTELSAT system.

Tenerife airport disaster (March 27, 1977), the
 collision of two full Boeing 747s on the ground at
 Tenerife airport, causing both to burst into
 flames, killing 576 people and creating the worst
 airplane disaster in history.

T'eng Hsiao-ping, the old-style name of Chinese
 leader 
DENG XIAOPING.

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), a massive U.S.
 
NEW DEAL utilities project that built a series of
 large dams in the Tennessee River basin, as well as
 ultimately buying existing private power
 installations, which generated and sold electric
 power to municipalities, associations, and large
 businesses in the basin at low rates. They
 developed a considerable range of flood control,
 farm help, and conservation projects in the valley.


Terauchi, Count Hisaichi (1879-1946), Japanese
 officer who held many key army and government
 positions before World War II, including that of
 war minister in the mid-1930s. From 1937, he
 commanded Japanese forces in north China and was
 then Southeast Asia commander-in-chief 1941-45,
 becoming a field marshal in 1943.

Tereshkova, Valentina Vladimirovna (1937- ), Soviet
 cosmonaut who on June 16, 1963, in 
VOSTOK 6,
 became the first woman in space, orbiting the Earth
 48 times in a 71-hour flight.

terrible beauty is born, a a line by William Butler
 Yeats; from Easter, 1916, about the 
EASTER

 RISING.

terrorism, in the late 20th century, a term
 generally used to describe such actions as
 assassination, hijacking, bombing, and the mass
 murder of defenseless civilians, carried out by
 such organizations as the 
BAADER-MEINHOF GROUP,
 the 
RED BRIGADES, and 
BLACK SEPTEMBER; for
 example, the 
MUNICH OLYMPICS MURDERS and the
 
ACHILLE LAURO hijacking. Many governments have
 used similar tactics, as in the sponsorship of
 
DEATH SQUADS, the destruction of the homes,
 imprisonment, and exile of dissenters, the use of
 poison gas against civilian populations, and the
 operation of genocidal 
CONCENTRATION CAMPS.

Teruel, Battle of (December 1937-February 1938), a
 Republican offensive during the 
SPANISH CIVIL

 WAR, that captured but could not hold the city.

testosterone, male sex 
HORMONE, first identified
 and synthesized in 1935 by Croatian-Swiss chemist
 Leopold Ruzicka and others; it is a 
STEROID
 sometimes used to enhance muscular development in
 athletes.

test-tube baby, child born of a human egg
 fertilized outside of and later implanted into the
 womb, by the process of in vitro fertilization, the
 first such baby being Louise 
BROWN in 1978.

Tet Offensive (January-February 1968), a major
 attack by the North Vietnamese regular army and
 accompanying guerrillas on cities and military
 installations throughout South Vietnam, attack
 teams even penetrating the U.S. Embassy compound in
 Saigon. Although the offensive was ultimately
 repelled, it was the turning point in the 
VIETNAM

 WAR, demonstrating that after years of heavy
 bombing and reassuring American predictions of
 imminent victory, no victory was in sight; there
 was no "light at the end of the tunnel." The
 already-powerful American peace movement was
 greatly strengthened, and the 
JOHNSON
 administration was so disheartened that
 deescalation of the war, the opening of peace
 negotiations, and Lyndon B. Johnson's decision not
 to seek reelection all quickly followed.

Texas City explosions (April 16, 1947), explosion
 of a nitrate-carrying freighter in the city harbor
 in Texas, reaching a Monsanto chemical plant on
 shore and setting off a huge explosion that
 destroyed much of the city's business district.
 Later that night, a second nitrate-carrying
 freighter exploded in the harbor. An estimated
 500-1,000 people were killed, with thousands
 injured and massive property damage.

Texas Tower sniper, former U.S. marine Charles
 Whitman, later found to have had a brain tumor,
 after killing his wife and mother, mounted the
 University of Texas observation tower and on August
 1, 1966, killed 16 people, wounding 30 others,
 before police killed him.

Thaelmann, Ernst (1886-1944), the leading German
 Communist of the 1920s and early 1930s, and his
 party's unsuccessful presidential candidate in 1925
 and 1933. He followed 
COMINTERN policy in
 attacking the German Social Democrats as "social
 fascists," splitting the opponents of fascism and
 making the Nazi rise to power far easier than it
 might otherwise have been. He was murdered by his
 Nazi captors in 
BUCHENWALD in September 1944.

thalidomide, a drug widely prescribed for pregnant
 women in Great Britain and Germany, and
 experimentally in many other countries, from 1957
 until it became clear in 1961-62 that it caused
 serious birth defects, including major
 malformations in newborn babies. Some of the
 parents of "thalidomide babies" later won money
 settlements from governments and drug companies
 after years of protest and litigation. In the
 United States the 
FDA did not approve the drug
 for use, but it was used experimentally on tens of
 thousands of pregnant women and their children;
 afterward, U.S. drug laws were examined and greatly
 tightened to prevent recurrence of that kind of
 error.

Thant, U (1909-74), Burmese diplomat and 
UNITED

 NATIONS representative 1957- 1961, who was third
 secretary-general of the UN 1961-71. During his
 tenure he was able to develop little impact on the
 major events of the time; he maintained an
 essentially neutralist position in the 
COLD WAR
 while stressing matters important to the 
THIRD

 WORLD at the UN. His decision to withdraw UN
 peacekeeping forces from the Sinai and Gaza in 1967
 was both criticized as helping pave the way for the
 subsequent Arab-Israeli war and praised as
 lifesaving realism in contemplation of a war that
 the UN could not stop.

That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for
 mankind, comment by U.S. astronaut Neil
 
ARMSTRONG, alighting on the 
MOON, July 16,
 1969.

Thatcher, Margaret (Margaret Roberts; 1925- ),
 British chemist and barrister, who became a
 Conservative member of Parliament in 1959 and was
 education and science minister 1970-74. She became
 Britain's first woman major political party leader
 in 1975 and first woman prime minister in 1979.
 Leading the most conservative wing of her party,
 she moved to privatize previously nationalized
 industries, sharply cut social welfare and cultural
 funding, and fostered legislation aimed at reducing
 union power. She also attempted to limit both
 criticism and possible national security breaches,
 in part by suppressing publication by former
 government employees, as in the Spycatcher case.
 The British victory in the 1982 
FALKLANDS WAR
 greatly helped the national self-esteem of many in
 Great Britain and also helped her to continue in
 office in a period of some domestic difficulty. The
 civil war in Northern Ireland, accompanied by
 
IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY terrorist actions directed
 at her personally and at British citizens in many
 locations, was a continuing major unsolved problem.


Thaw, Harry Kendall (1872-1947), the man who shot
 and killed architect Stanford White at the
 dinner-theater on the roof of Madison Square Garden
 in New York City, on June 25, 1906, after Thaw's
 wife, Evelyn Nesbit Thaw, had accused White, her
 former lover, of seducing her before her marriage
 to Thaw. The case attracted great public interest
 and media attention, for Nesbit had been a
 well-known model and stage performer before her
 marriage to Thaw; and the sex practices of all
 three protagonists were deemed lurid for the time
 and place. After two trials Thaw was acquitted for
 reasons of insanity, and institutionalized. He
 later escaped, in 1915 was legally declared sane,
 was later recommitted, and was freed again in 1922.


Thaw, the, in the Soviet Union, the period of
 relaxation of internal tensions that followed the
 death of Joseph 
STALIN in 1953, a period in which
 the use of the KGB's internal security apparatus
 was considerably limited, thousands of prisoners
 were released from labor camps, and voices of
 dissent were heard for the first time since the
 early 1930s. In 1956, with 
KHRUSHCHEV'S SECRET

 SPEECH, exposing many of the crimes of the Stalin
 period, the process accelerated, then also being
 called 
DE-STALINIZATION. After the removal of
 Khrushchev, in October 1964, the Soviet government
 again began to harass and in 1966 to prosecute
 dissidents, although never returning to the mass
 terrorism of the Stalin years.

There is no right to strike against the public
 safety by anybody, anywhere, any time, comment by
 Calvin 
COOLIDGE, then governor of Massachusetts,
 breaking the 
BOSTON POLICE STRIKE of 1919.

thermonuclear weapon, explosive device, such as the
 
HYDROGEN BOMB, that produces its energy through
 
NUCLEAR FUSION, creating much heat in the
 process.

They shall not pass, French slogan at the Battle of
 
VERDUN (1916) during World War I, and 
SPANISH

 REPUBLICAN slogan at the 
SIEGE OF MADRID during
 the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR.

Thieu, Nguyen Van (1923- ), South Vietnamese
 officer and 
VIETNAM WAR general who joined in the
 army coup that deposed Ngo Dinh 
DIEM in 1963 and
 in the coup that deposed Nguyen Cao 
KY in 1965.
 Thieu became president of South Vietnam in 1967; he
 fled abroad in 1975 after his forces were defeated.


Third Arab-Israeli War (June 5-10, 1967), an
 alternate name for the 
SIX-DAY WAR.

Third International, an alternate name for the
 
COMMUNIST INTERNATIONAL, denoting that it was a
 successor to the socialist 
SECOND INTERNATIONAL,
 which had split over the issue of participation in
 World War I.

Third Reich (1933-45), the third German empire, the
 first being the Holy Roman Empire, the second
 imperial Germany 1871-1918, and the third the Nazi
 name for 
HITLER'S Germany.

Third World, the nonaligned poorer countries of the
 world. The term came into general use as the 
COLD

 WAR developed in the 1950s and with it what were
 at that time two definable Western and Soviet
 blocs. The third world was never well defined;
 politically, it was soon superseded by the
 
NONALIGNED MOVEMENT and economically by the
 equally spongy "developing nations" term.

This House will not fight for King and Country, the
 
OXFORD PLEDGE of February 1933.

This is London, the salutation of Edward R.
 
MURROW, broadcasting from London to the United
 States during the 1940 
BLITZ. His broadcasts did
 much to develop American sympathy for the Allies.


Tho, Le Duc (1911- ), chief North Vietnamese
 negotiator during the Paris peace talks that led to
 the agreement of January 1973 ending American
 involvement in the 
VIETNAM WAR. In 1973 he and
 U.S. negotiator Henry 
KISSINGER were jointly
 awarded a Nobel Peace Prize, which Le Duc Tho
 declined.

Thomas, Norman Mattoon (1884-1968), U.S. minister,
 pacifist, socialist, and civil libertarian, who was
 a founder of the 
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION
 in 1920 and of the League for Industrial Democracy
 in 1922. He was six-time presidential candidate of
 the 
SOCIALIST PARTY 1928-48.

Thomson, Joseph John (1856-1940), British physicist
 who discovered the 
ELECTRON in 1897 during work
 on cathode rays, sparking a wide range of
 20th-century developments, most notably in the
 field of 
ELECTRONICS. He won the 1906 Nobel Prize
 for Physics. In 1904 he first posited the idea of
 electrons circling in orbits. As long-time head of
 the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University,
 Thomson influenced a whole generation of
 scientists, such as Ernest 
RUTHERFORD.

Thornburgh, Richard Lewis (1929- ), U.S. lawyer, a
 federal prosecutor as U.S. attorney for western
 Pennsylvania, 1969-75, and Justice Department
 criminal division assistant attorney general
 1975-77. He was governor of Pennsylvania 1979-87,
 and was named U.S. attorney general by President
 Ronald 
REAGAN in July 1988. In September 1988,
 during a presidential campaign in which Republican
 presidential candidate George 
BUSH was attacking
 the 
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION (ACLU),
 Thornburgh publicly delared that he had been an
 ACLU member but had resigned that membership. He
 was renamed U.S. attorney general by
 President-elect George Bush on November 21, 1988.


Thorndike, Edward Lee (1874-1949), U.S.
 psychologist, whose work focused on studies of
 human intelligence and learning methods. In his
 early work with animals Thorndike developed some
 now-standard experiments and tests, including the
 maze and the puzzle box; the results of his work on
 trial-and-error learning helped form the basis for
 
BEHAVIORISM. He also developed tests for a wide
 range of human skills and aptitudes, the best known
 being the 
INTELLIGENCE TESTS he created for U.S.
 Army use in World War I. His textbooks on
 educational psychology were widely used and highly
 influential.

Three Mile Island (March 28, 1979), nuclear plant
 near Middletown, Pennsylvania, where a series of
 events brought the Unit 2 
NUCLEAR REACTOR within
 what later reports said to be 1 hour from meltdown.
 A considerable amount of 
RADIOACTIVE material was
 released into the surrounding environment, although
 disagreement continues as to the amount of human
 and environmental damage caused. The event,
 accompanied by enormous media coverage, greatly
 heightened public concern as to the safety of
 
NUCLEAR ENERGY.

Thresher sinking (April 10, 1963), the sinking of
 the U.S. nuclear submarine 
THRESHER off the New
 Hampshire coast after its hull failed at a depth of
 1,000 feet, with the loss of its entire crew of
 129.

Thule, town in northern Greenland founded in 1910
 by Danish explorer Knut 
RASMUSSEN as a base for
 expeditions and given the Greco-Roman name for a
 northernmost land. During and after World War II,
 Thule became, by U.S.-Danish agreement, an
 important defense station.

thyroxine, vital 
HORMONE produced by the thyroid
 gland, first isolated as a crystal by Edwin C.
 Kendall in 1914, later synthesized and used to
 treat patients with insufficient thyroid hormone
 production.

Tiananmen Square, huge central Beijing square that
 was the site of the 
CHINESE STUDENT DEMONSTRATIONS

 OF 1989 and of the bloody attacks by the Chinese
 army on June 4, 1989, in which hundreds and perhaps
 thousands of Chinese citizens were killed.

Tiger, the, Georges 
CLEMENCEAU, French statesman
 who came out of semiretirement at the age of 76 to
 lead France to victory in World War I.

Till, Emmett (1941-55), a 14-year-old Black Chicago
 schoolboy visiting in the south, whose body was
 found in the Tallehatchie River, in Le Flore
 County, Mississippi, on August 31, 1955. He had
 been lynched, apparently for whistling at a White
 woman in a local store. Two White men were
 acquitted of the murder, having been tried before
 an all-White Mississippi jury. Coming when it did,
 at the beginning of the modern 
CIVIL RIGHTS

 MOVEMENT, the lynching of Emmett Till became a
 cause celebre.

Times Beach, Missouri site of a major toxic
 chemical disaster. In 1971 thousands of gallons of
 
DIOXIN, waste from a herbicide plant, were poured
 on Times Beach's dirt roads to keep down dust. By
 1974 the deaths of many local animals had been
 traced to the chemical, but authorities did
 nothing, thinking that dioxin broke down quickly in
 the environment. But by 1982 it was clear that the
 dioxin was still heavily concentrated-100 to 300
 times safe levels. The next year, unable to come up
 with an effective plan to deal with the dioxin, the
 Environmental Protection Agency bought all the
 homes in the town and evacuated the whole
 population.

Timosoara Massacre (December 17, 1989), the killing
 of hundreds of unarmed pro-democracy demonstrators
 by Rumanian security police at Timosoara,
 Transylvania, by order of Rumanian dictator Nicolae
 
CEAUSESCU. The massacre stirred nationwide
 protests, which quickly grew into the 
RUMANIAN

 REVOLUTION.

Timoshenko, Semyon Konstantinovich (1895-1970),
 Soviet officer, who saw service in the 
RUSSIAN

 CIVIL WAR. In 1940 he commanded Soviet forces in
 the 
FINNISH-SOVIET WAR, afterward becoming a
 field marshal. He commanded defending forces at
 Smolensk and in the south early in the war, but
 fell from favor after the Soviet reverse at Kharkov
 in 1942, then leading somewhat lesser forces for
 the balance of the war.

Tinbergen, Nikolaas (1907-88), Dutch-British
 zoologist who in the 1930s, with Konrad 
LORENZ,
 founded ethology, the scientific study of animal
 behavior, for which they (and Karl von Frisch)
 shared the 1973 Nobel Prize for Physiology or
 Medicine. Tinbergen especially focused on the
 relationship between physiological or environmental
 stimulus and behavioral response in animals,
 attempting to use such studies to cast light on
 human behavior and communication, notably with
 autistic people.

Tiros (Television and Infra-Red Observation
 Satellite), world's first weather 
SATELLITE,
 launched in 1960.

Tirpitz, Alfred von (1849-1930), German admiral
 who, as naval chief of staff, built a powerful
 German navy during the run-up to World War I.
 Although his early advice to pursue unrestricted
 
SUBMARINE WARFARE was rejected, his submarine
 fleet ultimately did great damage to Allied
 shipping; but his large surface force was never a
 significant factor, save for the inconclusive
 battle of 
JUTLAND, for it was bottled up by the
 much stronger British fleet throughout the war.

Titanic, "unsinkable" British luxury liner on its
 first voyage across the North Atlantic, which sank
 after striking an unseen iceberg off Newfoundland
 on April 15, 1912. The ship, later judged to have
 been traveling too fast and with inadequate
 lifeboats and safety drills, sank in a little less
 than 2 hours, with a loss of an estimated 1,500
 passengers and crew, among them some of the notable
 people of the time. Young wireless operator David
 Sarnoff, working in New York City, was the first to
 pick up the Titanic's distress signals, reporting
 for 72 hours about the sinking and rescue efforts;
 but the radio operator of a ship only 10 miles away
 from the Titanic had gone off duty. As a result of
 the tragedy, liners were required to have
 sufficient lifeboat space and emergency drills;
 ships were required to keep a 24-hour radio watch;
 and an International Ice Patrol was established for
 the North Atlantic. In 1985 the Titanic was located
 on the seabed by oceanographer Robert Ballard.

Tito (Josip Broz; 1892-1980), Yugoslav Communist
 leader who became a Communist after having been
 captured by the Russians in 1915 while serving in
 the Austrian army; he then fought with the Red Army
 during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR. He was a leading
 Yugoslav Communist of the interwar period, becoming
 active in the 
COMINTERN, and was his party's
 general secretary from 1937. During World War II he
 led a powerful anti-Nazi partisan movement in
 Yugoslavia, which in some periods also fought
 against the 
CHETNIK forces of Draza 
MIHAJLOVIC.
 After the war he became undisputed leader of the
 Yugoslav Communist Party and state, formally
 becoming president in 1953 and life president in
 1974. He broke with the Soviet Union in 1948 and
 thereafter led his country on an independent
 course, developing a market-oriented, socialist,
 multiethnic state, four decades before the
 
GORBACHEV era. At the same time he suppressed
 internal dissent, such as that of Milovan 
DJILAS.
 He maintained an independent international course
 as well, after his break with the Soviet Union
 maintaining relations with the West and becoming an
 initiator of the 
NONALIGNED MOVEMENT.

Tobruk, a fortress on the Libyan seacoast, that was
 held by the British during a long 
AXIS siege
 (April-December 1941) and relieved after a desert
 battle that ended with German withdrawal. On June
 20-21, 1942, German-Italian forces, advancing from
 Libya into Egypt after their victory at 
BIR

 HACHEIM a week earlier, paused to assault and take
 the fortress of Tobruk, and with it 33,000 Allied
 prisoners and much war material.

Togliatti, Palmiro (1893-1964), Italian Communist
 leader, a socialist who became a founder of the
 Italian Communist Party in 1921, and from 1926 was
 secretary-general of his party, operating from
 exile. In 1935 he became secretary of the
 
COMINTERN. He fought with the 
INTERNATIONAL

 BRIGADES during the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR, spent
 World War II in the Soviet Union, and returned to
 Italy to head the Italian Communist Party in 1944.
 During the postwar period he built it into the
 largest Communist Party outside the Soviet and
 Chinese blocs and served in early postwar
 governments, but after 1947 he was not accepted
 into the Christian Democrat-dominated coalition
 governments that followed.

Togo (Republic of Togo), 
FRENCH TOGOLAND, which
 became Togo, gained internal autonomy in 1956 and
 independence on April 27, 1960.

Togoland, former West African German protectorate,
 which became a 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS mandate
 territory after World War I. In 1922 it was split
 into 
FRENCH (East) 
TOGOLAND and 
BRITISH
 (West) 
TOGOLAND, both 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS mandate
 territories during the interwar period. After World
 War II both Togolands became 
UNITED NATIONS trust
 territories. On March 6, 1957, British Togoland
 became part of the new nation of 
GHANA. On April
 27, 1960, French Togoland became the new nation of
 
TOGO.

Tojo Hidecki (1884-1948), Japanese soldier and
 militarist leader, who became Kwangtung army chief
 of staff in Manchuria, minister of war, and in
 October 1941 prime minister of Japan. He bore great
 responsibility for leading Japan into World War II,
 resigned after serious wartime defeats in 1944, and
 was arrested, tried, and hanged as a war criminal
 after the war.

Tokyo firebombing (March 9, 1945), dropping of
 large numbers of incendiary bombs on Tokyo by U.S.
 bombers late in World War II, creating firestorms
 that destroyed much of the city and caused an
 estimated 200,000 casualties, of whom at least
 100,000 ultimately died. Subsequent American
 incendiary raids created firestorms in several
 other Japanese cities, with very large additional
 casualties.

Tokyo Rose (Iva Ikuko Toguri D'Aquino, 1916- ),
 American who broadcast Japanese propaganda aimed at
 U.S. troops in the South Pacific during World War
 II, the propaganda being ignored and the music
 rather enjoyed by its audience. After the war she
 was convicted of treason and imprisoned for six
 years but was later pardoned by U. S. president
 Ford, in the belief that she had been forced to so
 broadcast by the Japanese.

Tokyo-Yokohama earthquake (September 1, 1923), an
 earthquake and following fire that caused an
 estimated 140,000 deaths and destroyed much of both
 cities.

Tombaugh, Clyde William (1906- ), U.S. astronomer,
 who in 1930 first discovered the planet 
PLUTO;
 its existence had been predicted in 1905 by
 Percival 
LOWELL.

Tonga (Kingdom of Tonga), until 1958 a British
 protectorate, Tonga gained independence and
 
COMMONWEALTH membership on June 4, 1970.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution (August 7, 1964), a U.S
 congressional resolution, enabling president Lyndon
 B. 
JOHNSON to take the United States into the
 undeclared 
VIETNAM WAR. It passed unanimously in
 the House of Representatives and with two
 dissenting votes in the Senate. The situation
 generating the resolution resulted from two
 reported attacks on U.S. naval vessels by North
 Vietnamese torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin.
 Later, critics charged that the resolution had been
 prepared before the attacks had been reported and
 that the situation had been manufactured by the
 administration for the purpose of legitimizing
 planned American intervention in Vietnam.

Tontons Macoutes, Haitian paramilitary force and
 secret police organization developed by dictator
 Francois 
DUVALIER, which terrorized the people
 of Haiti during the 29 years in which he and his
 son ruled.

Torch, Operation, code name of the Allied plan for
 the invasion of North Africa in 1942, involving
 landings by mainly American troops at French-held
 Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers. All three landings
 (November 8-11) were successful after some
 resistance; at Algiers, 
VICHY French Admiral
 
DARLAN was captured, went over to the Allied
 side, and ordered all French troops in North Africa
 to do the same.

Torrey Canyon oil spill (March 18, 1967), a major
 oil spill and environmental disaster created when
 the U.S. oil tanker 
TORREY CANYON grounded off
 Cornwall, England; the spill damaged an estimated
 120 miles of British and French coastline.

Torrijos, Omar (1929-81), Panamanian officer and
 nationalist leader, who took power from President
 Arnulfo Arias in the coup of 1968, and negotiated
 the 1979 
PANAMA CANAL treaties aimed at returning
 the canal to Panamanian sovereignty. He died in a
 1980 plane crash.

Toure, Ahmed Sekou (1922-84), Guinean union
 official, nationalist, and socialist who, as head
 of the Guinean Democratic party, became first
 president of Guinea in 1958, when independence from
 France was achieved. He developed a strongly
 socialist economy in the early years and became a
 major figure on the left in the pan-African
 movement. He also developed a repressive one- party
 state, moderated his policies somewhat in the later
 years of his rule, and held power until his death.


Tower, John Goodwin (1925- ), U.S. political
 scientist and university professor, four-term
 Republican senator from Texas, 1961-85, and
 international business and banking consultant from
 1985. After leaving the Senate he was U.S. nuclear
 arms negotiator at Geneva, 1985-86, and was head of
 the 
TOWER COMMISSION, which reviewed the
 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR in 1987. He was nominated
 secretary of defense by President-elect George
 
BUSH on December 16, 1988, but ran into serious
 confirmation problems during the January
 25-February l, 1988, hearings of the Senate Armed
 Services Committee, because of allegations of
 previous drinking problems. On February 2 the
 committee postponed a vote on the nomination,
 pending further investigation, and on February 23
 voted against his nomination. The issue went to the
 floor of the Senate on March 2, after Tower had
 publicly pledged future sobriety in three February
 26 national television appearances. Although the
 administration continued to fully back the Tower
 nomination, on March 9 it was voted down 53-47 by
 the Senate, becoming the first major defeat of the
 new Bush administration.

Tower Commission (President's Special Review
 Board), U.S. 1986-87 commission, appointed by
 President Ronald 
REAGAN and headed by John
 
TOWER-the other two members being Edmund 
MUSKIE
 and Brent 
SCOWCROFT-that made the first major
 investigation of the 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR, and
 issued a report that severely criticized the
 administration for its policy and operational
 failures.

toxic shock syndrome, rare, sometimes fatal,
 bacterial infection found most often in
 menstruating women, first recognized in 1978. Its
 worst year was 1980, with 819 cases in the United
 States, including 69 deaths. In 1981 the disease
 was linked with use of superabsorbent tampons,
 causing certain types to be taken off the market,
 and in 1984 with misused contraceptive sponges.

toxic waste dump, site where dangerous,
 health-threatening chemicals have been piled or
 poured, often illegally and certainly
 irresponsibly, with results as predicted in Rachel
 
CARSON's 
SILENT SPRING (1962). A worldwide
 problem, it has received the most publicity in the
 United States, from the 1970s, with the finding of
 sites such as 
LOVE CANAL. Though the
 Environmental Protection Agency declared in 1983
 that toxic wastes in general, and 
DIOXIN in
 particular, were a top priority, even the
 inadequate money allocated was sometimes not spent,
 and the problem worsened.

Toya Maru sinking (September 26, 1954), the sinking
 of the harbor ferry 
TOYA MARU in Tsugaru Strait,
 off Japan, during a typhoon, when the railroad cars
 it was carrying were torn loose by the storm; 1,172
 people died.

Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1889-1975), British
 historian whose 12-volume work The Study of History
 (1934-61) was an attempt to develop a systematic
 analysis of the history of civilization, along with
 a religiously based theory of regenerative
 development. His work was widely popular in its
 time, although major inadequacies made it useless
 as a basis for further theoretical or practical
 work.

Tracy, Edward Austin, one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, a writer who was kidnapped on October
 21, 1986.

tranquilizers, type of drug developed in the
 mid-1950s that revolutionized treatment of mental
 patients. In 1952 a tranquilizing drug called
 reserpine was isolated from a long-known Indian
 root and first used on patients the following year,
 but its use declined quickly. In 1954 a synthetic
 tranquilizer, chlorpromazine (Thorazine), was first
 used. The main advantages of these drugs and of the
 others that followed was that they helped to
 control anxiety, lessen hallucinations, and
 increase responsiveness to therapy. Tranquilizers
 quickly came to replace 
SHOCK TREATMENT for most
 patients, and within just a few years-in the United
 States by 1956-the population of mental hospitals,
 which had been rising for years, began to fall.
 Tranquilizers were so effective at calming patients
 that critics began to charge that hospitals were
 drugging their patients into a stupor to make them
 easier to care for. The drugs came to be widely
 used among the general population as well.

transistor, type of 
ELECTRONIC device that
 largely replaced the cumbersome, heat-producing
 
VACUUM TUBE after the 1950s and allowed for
 modern miniaturization in many items such as
 
COMPUTERS and 
RADIO. Transistors are made of
 crystals of certain metals with special properties,
 called semiconductors, for they are neither
 conductors or insulators; because 
ELECTRONS move
 through the solid semiconducting crystals, rather
 than through a vacuum, transistors form the basis
 of solid-state electronics. Though crystal radio
 detectors had been introduced by Karl Braun in
 1901, transistors in their modern form were
 developed in 1948 by Bell Laboratories researchers
 William 
SHOCKLEY, John Bardeen, and Walter Houser
 Brattain. In the 1960s, when multiple transistors
 were built into integrated circuits put on
 
MICROPROCESSOR CHIPS, the age of microelectronics
 began.

Transjordan, early alternate name for 
JORDAN.

transplant, in medicine, replacement of a diseased
 human organ or tissue with a healthy like part from
 a donor, or from elsewhere on the patient's own
 body. Tissue transplants go back at least 4,000
 years, but grafts from one person to another often
 failed. In 1903 Danish veterinarian Carl Oluf
 Jensen was the first to recognize that such
 rejections were caused by the body's immune system.
 Transplants of whole organs awaited development of
 modern surgical techniques. In the first decade of
 the 20th century several human kidney transplants
 were attempted; in Germany doctors attempted to
 transplant a pig or dog kidney to a human.
 Scientists such as Alexis 
CARREL developed
 necessary surgical techniques by transplanting
 limbs and organs among animals, often dogs. In the
 process they learned that the closer the genetic
 relationship between donor and recipient, the more
 successful the transplant. In 1912 James B. Murphy
 experimented at the Rockefeller Institute with the
 first immunosuppressive drug, designed to minimize
 transplant rejection. Years later, in 1944, Peter
 
MEDAWAR outlined the modern theory of
 transplantation immunity: basically, that a donor's
 body fights "foreign" tissue as if it were a
 disease. In 1954 a Harvard medical team led by
 Joseph E. Murray performed the first successful
 kidney transplant. Shortly thereafter an Organ
 Transplant Registry was begun in the United States
 to permanently record data on transplants. More
 difficult and less widely used were liver
 transplants, first performed at the University of
 Colorado by Thomas E. Starzl in 1963; lung
 transplants, done in 1964 at the University of
 Mississippi (Jackson) by James D. Hardy; and
 pancreas transplants performed by Swiss surgeons in
 1971, based on work by University of Minnesota
 researchers. The first successful 
HEART

 TRANSPLANT was performed in 1967 by Christiaan
 
BARNARD. By the 1970s even bone marrow was being
 transplanted, saving the lives of many leukemia
 victims; and by the 1980s cornea transplants-less
 subject to rejection than most organs or
 tissues-were becoming almost routine. The
 immunosuppressive drug cyclosporine, approved by
 the FDA in 1983, was a breakthrough in controlling
 transplant rejection. Organ and tissue banks were
 set up around the world as methods were developed
 to preserve organs and tissue, where possible, for
 later use. By the late 1980s a major ethical
 question had emerged as to who should receive the
 limited number of organs available. Some desperate
 people mounted campaigns, picked up widely by the
 media, to publicize their need for organs and
 funds.

trash bag murders, a media-developed name for a
 series of 28 California murders committed between
 1972 and 1977; in all cases the bodies of those
 murdered were dismembered and dispersed in trash
 bags. Patrick Kearney confessed to 21 of the
 murders in 1977 and was sentenced to life
 imprisonment.

Treblinka, Nazi 
DEATH CAMP in Poland in which
 hundreds of thousands of Jews and other Eastern
 Europeans were murdered by the Germans during World
 War II.

tree-ring dating, alternate name for
 
DENDROCHRONOLOGY, a dating system developed by
 Andrew Ellicott 
DOUGLASS by about 1920.

trench warfare, term for the 4-year-long battle
 from entrenched fortifications between the Allied
 and German armies during World War I, from the
 failure of the German offensive in 1914 to the
 German surrender in 1918, in a war of attrition
 costing millions of lives. This was also the main
 form taken by the 
IRAN-IRAQ WAR (1980-88).

Trepper, Leopold (1905-77), Polish revolutionary,
 who emigrated to Palestine in 1924, was expelled
 for Communist activities in 1929 and was trained as
 a Communist activist in the Soviet Union during the
 early 1930s. He entered France as a Soviet
 intelligence agent in 1937 and built a major
 espionage network headquartered in Brussels,
 Belgium, that the 
NAZIS later called the 
RED

 ORCHESTRA. It consisted of approximately 300
 agents and radio operators. Late in 1940 he warned
 the Soviet Union of the impending German invasion,
 a warning 
STALIN chose to ignore. Ultimately
 captured, he escaped and worked in the French
 
RESISTANCE for the rest of the war. After the
 war, back in the Soviet Union, he was arrested,
 imprisoned for 10 years, and then "rehabilitated";
 he then went home to Poland. Having decided to
 emigrate to Israel in 1967, during the anti-Jewish
 attacks encouraged by the 
GOMULKA government as a
 means of diverting public attention from aborted
 liberalization, he was instead held under house
 arrest. A worldwide campaign forced his release to
 Israel in 1974.

Tresca, Carlo (1870-1943), Italian-American
 anti-fascist who was assassinated in New York in
 1943. The murder was unsolved, but was widely
 attributed to American Mafia assassins allegedly
 acting under orders from Benito 
MUSSOLINI.

Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire (March 25, 1911),
 New York City garment factory fire in which 146
 workers, most of them young Jewish-American and
 Italian-American women, were burned or jumped to
 their deaths, because the exit doors of the
 firetrap factory were barred. Great public outrage
 developed after the fire; with it came a full
 investigation and the adoption of pioneering health
 and safety legislation in New York State.

Trianon, Treaty of (June 4, 1920), the Hungarian
 peace treaty following World War I, delayed because
 of the Hungarian revolution of 1919; it provided
 for Hungarian territorial and military concessions
 and for the payment of reparations.

Trinidad and Tobago (Republic of Trinidad and
 Tobago), until 1962 a British colony, gaining
 independence and 
COMMONWEALTH membership on
 August 31, 1962. From 1956 the leader of Trinidad
 and Tobago's independence movement was Dr. Eric
 
WILLIAMS, his country's prime minister until his
 death in 1981.

Trinity, name of the test at 
LOS ALAMOS, New
 Mexico, where the first 
ATOMIC BOMB was set off
 on July 16, 1945, as part of the 
MANHATTAN

 PROJECT.

Tripartite Pact (September 27, 1940), the treaty
 formally creating the German- Japanese-Italian
 military alliance that fought World War II.

Triple Entente, the informal alliance of Great
 Britain, France, and Russia in the years before
 World War I that became the formal war alliance of
 1914.

tritium, radioactive 
ISOTOPE of hydrogen with
 three times the normal mass, like 
DEUTERIUM a
 form of heavy hydrogen; it was discovered in 1934
 by Australian physicist Marcus Laurence Oliphant.
 Tritium is used for various purposes, notably in
 the process of 
NUCLEAR FUSION, in 
ACCELERATORS
 as a bombarding particle, and as a tracer in
 biological or medical research.

Triton, U.S. nuclear-powered submarine, launched in
 1958, that made the first undersea voyage around
 the world, in 1960.

Trotsky, Leon (Lev Davidovich Bronstein;
 1879-1940), the military leader of the 
OCTOBER

 REVOLUTION and commander in chief of the Red Army,
 which he built, during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR.
 Trotsky was a revolutionary while still in his
 teens, and became a Marxist during a period of
 exile in Siberia. He was sent to Siberia again
 after the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION of 1905 and later
 went to the United States, returning home in 1917
 to join the new Russian Revolution. Although he had
 been a 
MENSHEVIK from 1903 to 1917, he joined the
 
BOLSHEVIKS then, soon became 
LENIN'S second in
 command, and as chairman of the 
PETROGRAD SOVIET
 directed the armed forces that carried out the
 October Revolution. But after negotiating the
 
BREST LITOVSK TREATY that took Russia out of
 World War I and leading the Red Army throughout the
 civil war, he unsuccessfully opposed Joseph
 
STALIN'S rise to power. From 1924 through 1929 he
 suffered a series of reverses, ultimately being
 expelled from the Communist Party, sent into
 internal exile, and then deported from the Soviet
 Union. He continued to oppose Stalin from abroad
 during the 1930s, saw many of his old colleagues
 executed during the show trials of the 1930s 
GREAT

 PURGE, and was himself assassinated, probably by
 Stalin's agents, in Mexico City, on August 20,
 1940.

Trucial States, former name for the 
UNITED ARAB

 EMIRATES.

Trudeau, Pierre Elliot (1919- ), Canadian lawyer,
 who became justice minister in 1967 as a
 French-Canadian counterweight to the growing
 
QUEBEC SEPARATIST MOVEMENT. He became Liberal
 party leader in April 1968, succeeding Lester
 
PEARSON, and was prime minister from 1968 to 1979
 and again from 1980 until his resignation in 1984.
 As prime minister he resisted Quebec separatism,
 granting the police great latitude in antiterrorist
 activities, while at the same time fostering
 bilingualism and national recognition of
 French-Canadian identity.

Trujillo Molina, Rafael Leonidas (1891-1961),
 Dominican Republic officer, dictator of his
 country, 1930-61, whose long tenure was marked by
 the suppression of all opposition, the murder of
 many of his opponents, and the financial
 aggrandizement of his friends and family. He was
 assassinated by a group of army officers, beginning
 a period of instability that resulted in the
 
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC CIVIL WAR.

Truman, Harry S. (1884-1972), U.S. judge and
 political leader, a Missouri county judge before
 becoming a Democratic senator from Missouri
 (1935-45), who became vice-president in 1945 and
 succeeded Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT in the
 presidency on April 12, 1945, becoming 33rd
 president of the United States (1945-53). He
 defeated Republican Thomas E. 
DEWEY and
 Progressive Henry A. 
WALLACE in the 1948
 elections. As president he made the decision to
 drop the first 
ATOMIC BOMBS used in warfare, on
 
HIROSHIMA (August 6 1945), and 
NAGASAKI (August
 9, 1945), an act that has colored every life on
 Earth ever since. He was a postwar president, and
 both of his administrations were greatly concerned
 with international matters, as the United States
 became one of only two superpowers and a
 participant in what became the 
COLD WAR. Some of
 his administration's major initiatives were the
 
TRUMAN DOCTRINE, the 
MARSHALL PLAN's European
 recovery program, the development of the 
NORTH

 ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO), and the
 
BERLIN AIRLIFT. In the Far East the United States
 was involved in the long occupation of Japan,
 attempted unsuccessfully to support 
CHIANG

 KAI-SHEK against the Communists in the final
 stages of the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR, and ultimately
 found itself fighting the 
KOREAN WAR.
 Domestically, the Truman administration prosecuted
 the 
COMMUNIST PARTY while at the same time
 attempting to resist witchhunting as developed by
 Senator Joseph 
MCCARTHY and his supporters.
 Truman was largely frustrated by postwar
 conservative opposition to the continuation of 
NEW

 DEAL programs that he called the 
FAIR DEAL. He
 was succeeded in office by Dwight David
 
EISENHOWER.

Truman Doctrine, a U.S. 
COLD WAR strategy first
 stated by President Harry S. 
TRUMAN, speaking to
 Congress on March 12, 1947, in which he asked for
 massive financial aid to Greece and Turkey, and
 declared U.S. policy to be that of aid to those
 opposing communism throughout the world.

Tshombe, Mojse Kapenda (1919-69), Congolese
 political leader who on July 11, 1960, led the
 Katanga province secession from the newly
 independent Congo. He was supported by Belgian
 industrial interests, who in this way sought to
 hold the mineral wealth of Katanga, and by Belgian
 and white mercenary troops, many of them South
 Africans. In February 1961, his troops murdered
 former Congo prime minister Patrice 
LUMUMBA, then
 imprisoned in Katanga. On September 17, 1960,
 
UNITED NATIONS secretary-general Dag
 
HAMMARSKOJLD died in a plane crash over the Congo
 while en route to negotiate a cease-fire with
 Tshombe. By 1963 UN peacekeeping forces in the
 Congo had defeated Tshombe's army, and he fled
 abroad. In 1964 he was recalled by Congo president
 Joseph 
KASAVUBU to serve as prime minister. He
 was dismissed by Kasavubu in 1965 for alleged
 electoral fraud and again went into exile.

Ts'u Hsi (1835-1908), Chinese leader known in the
 west as the Dowager Empress of China; during the
 latter half of the 19th century she ultimately
 became the very conservative regent and real ruler
 of China. In 1900 she supported the 
BOXER

 REBELLION, fleeing Peking afterward and returning
 in 1902. From then on she supported many of the
 reforms she had earlier resisted, but it was too
 late; the revolution of 1911 occurred 3 years after
 her death. She was succeeded by the child emperor
 
HSUAN T'UNG (Henry P'u Yi) .

Tsushima, Battle of (1905), a major Japanese defeat
 of the Russian navy during the Russo-
JAPANESE

 WAR.

Tuchman, Barbara (1912-89), U.S. historian and
 writer, whose major works brought her two Pulitzer
 Prizes (1963, 1971) and were in several instances
 best-sellers. These included The Guns of August
 (1962), The Proud Tower (1966), Stillwell and the
 American Experience in China, 1911-45, (1971), and
 A Distant Mirror (1978).

Tudeh, the Soviet-oriented Iranian Communist party,
 which was allied with the 
MOSSADEQ National Front
 government in the early 1950s and was underground
 thereafter, until the 
IRANIAN REVOLUTION of 1979.
 Although it supported the new government, it was
 outlawed again in 1983, allegedly for pro-Soviet
 links.

Tukhachevsky, Mikhail Nikolayevich (1893-1937),
 Soviet general during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR and
 the 
SOVIET-  POLISH WAR, who became army chief of
 staff, a marshal of the Soviet Union, and a leading
 Soviet expert on modern warfare.  He was executed
 in Moscow on June 11, 1937, on false treason
 charges, his execution paving the way for the purge
 of the entire army by Joseph 
STALIN and his
 followers. The result was enormous early losses in
 World War II, when a virtually leaderless Soviet
 army met modern German armies led by an intact
 officers corps.

Tunisia (Republic of Tunisia), until 1956 a French
 protectorate, gaining internal autonomy in 1955
 after 3 years of guerrilla insurgency, and
 achieving independence on March 20, 1956. From 1934
 the leader of Tunisia's independence movement was
 Habib 
BOURGIBA, who became his country's first
 president; he left office in 1987.

Tuparamos (National Liberation Movement), a
 Uruguayan leftist guerrilla movement, originating
 in the early 1960s and named after Inca leader
 Tupac Amaru, which initially engaged in nonlethal
 urban guerrilla actions but in the late 1960s moved
 into bombing, murder, and kidnapping, with great
 impact on Uruguay. In February 1973 the Uruguayan
 army took over police functions, and during 1973 it
 smashed the Tuparamos, imprisoning hundreds and
 forcing most of the remaining members of the
 organization into exile. In late 1984, as
 constitutional government was restored after a long
 period of military rule, many Tuparamos members
 returned from exile, and in 1985 the main body of
 Tuparamos prisoners were released. In December
 1985, reconvened as a legal party, the organization
 renounced violence and moved into electoral
 politics.

Tupolev, world's first 
SUPERSONIC airliner,
 unveiled in the U.S.S.R. in 1968.

Turing, Alan Mathison (1912-54), British
 mathematician who did key work in 
COMPUTER logic.
 In the 1930s he conceived of a theoretical "Turing
 machine" that could help analyze what problems were
 solvable by mathematics and by logical machines in
 general, his analysis helping to shape the
 computers that were to come. Under the secrecy of
 war in 1943 he built an all-
ELECTRONIC,
 special-purpose 
DIGITAL COMPUTER, the 
COLOSSUS,
 to help break the German codes, notably those using
 the 
ENIGMA machine. Later he became involved in
 Britain's fledgling computer program and also
 theorized extensively on the possibilities of
 
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.

Turkey (Republic of Turkey), until the end of World
 War I the center of the 
OTTOMAN EMPIRE, the 
SICK

 MAN OF EUROPE, which by then had been fragmenting
 for a century. In 1923 what remained of the empire
 was replaced by the Turkish republic, led by
 
ATATURK.

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, independent
 though disputed nation established on 
CYPRUS in
 1974.

Turner, Frederick Jackson (1861-1932), U.S.
 historian, whose main work dealt with the influence
 of the frontier on the development of American
 ideas and qualities. His classic work on the
 closing of the American frontier was done in the
 1890s, and published as The Frontier in American
 History (1920).

Turner, Jesse, one of the American 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, an American University professor who was
 kidnapped on January 24, 1988.

Tutankhamen, full name of the Egyptian pharaoh (c.
 1350 
B.C.) better known to the public as King
 Tut; his tomb was excavated by English archeologist
 Howard 
CARTER in 1922 and much caught the public
 fancy.

Tutu, Desmond Mpilo (1931- ), South African
 minister, head of the Anglican Church in South
 Africa, and leading advocate of nonviolence and
 peaceful reconciliation between the opposing forces
 in South Africa within the framework of a
 democratic, multiracial society. Ordained in 1961,
 he became the first Black Anglican dean of
 Johannesburg in 1975, general secretary of the
 South African Council of Churches in 1978, bishop
 of Johannesburg in 1984, and archbishop of
 Johannesburg in 1986. Leader of a worldwide
 campaign for social justice in South Africa, he won
 the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984.

Tuvalu, until 1975, the Ellice Islands, part of the
 British Gilbert and Ellice Islands, a protectorate
 until 1915, then a colony. In 1975 the Ellice
 Islands were split away from the Gilberts, gaining
 independence and 
COMMONWEALTH membership on
 October 1, 1978.

TVA, the initials of the 
TENNESSEE VALLEY

 AUTHORITY, a major U.S. 
NEW DEAL utilities
 project of the 1930s.

Twentieth Amendment, the "Lame Duck amendment" to
 the U.S. Constitution (1933), which moved the date
 of the presidential and vice-presidential
 inaugurations from March 4 to January 20, and also
 provided for the new Congress to take office on
 January 3.

Twenty-first Amendment, 1933 amendment to the U.S.
 Constitution, ending 
PROHIBITION.

Twenty-second Amendment, the "two-term amendment"
 to the U.S. Constitution, approved by Congress in
 1947 and by the states in 1951, providing that no
 president could serve more than two terms or one
 full term and more than 2 years of an unexpired
 term. It was adopted in direct response to the
 four-term presidency of Franklin Delano
 
ROOSEVELT.

Twenty-third Amendment, amendment to the U.S.
 Constitution (1961) that granted presidential
 election votes to the citizens of the District of
 Columbia.

Twenty-fourth Amendment, 1964 amendment to the U.S.
 Constitution outlawing the poll tax, which had been
 used since the post-Civil War period to
 disenfranchise Black Americans in the south.

Twenty-fifth Amendment, 1967 amendment to the U.S.
 Constitution that provided a procedure for the
 transfer of power from president to vice-president,
 should the president be disabled, and a procedure
 to fill a vacant vice-presidency.

26th July Movement, failed Cuban armed insurrection
 led by Fidel 
CASTRO, in which a small band of
 revolutionaries attacked the Moncada barracks on
 July 26, 1953; Castro was subsequently imprisoned
 for 2 years.

Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution,
 influential 1960 essay by British physicist, public
 official, and novelist Charles Percy Snow,
 lamenting the mid-20th-century split between
 scientists and humanists, as reflected in ignorance
 of and inability to understand each other's work
 and intellectual motives.

two-term amendment, the 
TWENTY-SECOND AMENDMENT
 to the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting presidents
 from serving more than two terms or one full term
 and more than 2 years of an unexpired term.

Tylenol capsule murders, seven 1982 murders in
 Chicago, all caused by cyanide inserted into
 Tylenol capsules. The murders were not solved and
 were followed by a series of copycat poisonings and
 attempted poisonings in other parts of the United
 States. After a February 1986 poisoning death in
 Peekskill, New York, the makers of Tylenol, Johnson
 and Johnson, took nonprescription capsules off the
 market.

UFO, popular shorthand for 
UNIDENTIFIED FLYING
 
OBJECT.

Uganda (Republic of Uganda), until March 1962 a
 British protectorate, gaining independence and
 
COMMONWEALTH membership on October 9, 1962, under
 Prime Minister Milton 
OBOTE. The country became a
 republic in 1967 and a one-party state ruled by
 Obote in 1969. In 1971 power was taken in a
 military coup led by Idi 
AMIN, who then developed
 a murder-laden reign of terror until being deposed
 during the 
UGANDA-TANZANIA WAR.

Ugandan Civil War (1980- ), a guerrilla war between
 the forces of President Milton 
OBOTE and National
 Resistance Army forces led by Yoweri Musaveni; it
 began with Obote's resumption of the presidency in
 late 1979, after Idi 
AMIN had been deposed during
 the 
UGANDA-TANZANIA WAR. Obote was deposed by
 officers of his own army, led by General Tito
 Okello, in July; peace talks followed, which
 yielded a peace agreement in mid-December. But
 Musaveni refused to accept the agreement; he
 renewed the war in January, took Kampala on January
 27, 1986, and assumed the presidency. The defeated
 forces of the previous government fought on, as
 insurgents, in the north and east.

Uganda-Tanzania War (January-June 1979), an
 invasion of Uganda by Tanzanian troops in support
 of forces hostile to Ugandan president Idi 
AMIN.
 Tanzanian forces took Kampala on April 11,
 overcoming Ugandan and supporting Libyan troops.
 Amin fled to Libya; in late May, the party of former
 president Milton 
OBOTE, who had been deposed by
 Amin in 1971, won an electoral victory, and Obote
 resumed the presidency. Tanzanian forces remained in
 Uganda until June 1981.

Ulanhu (1906-88), Mongolian political leader who
 joined the Chinese Communist movement in 1923,
 fostered Mongolian independence during the interwar
 period, and fought with Communist forces during the
 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR and the 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR.
 After Communist victory in 1949 Ulanhu became de
 facto ruler of Inner Mongolia, on behalf of the new
 government, and a deputy prime minister of the new
 People's Republic of China. He lost power in 1967
 during the 
CULTURAL REVOLUTION. After his
 rehabilitation in 1973 he once again held high
 government offices, functioning in Beijing, but did
 not resume power in Inner Mongolia.

Ulbricht, Walter (1893-1973), German carpenter, who
 became a Communist leader, fought on the Republican
 side during the 
SPANISH CIVIL WAR, spent World
 War II in the Soviet Union, and came home with the
 Red Army. He was secretary general of the Socialist
 Unity party and East German leader 1950-71, taking
 his country on a course of rapid industrial growth
 and developing a one-party, Soviet-oriented state.


Ulster Defence Association, the main Protestant
 paramilitary force in Northern Ireland, from 1969
 unifying many Protestant paramilitary
 organizations.

Ulster Volunteers, Protestant Northern Irish
 military organization formed in 1913 to fight, if
 necessary, for continuing ties to Britain and
 against Irish Home Rule. During the 
IRISH WAR OF

 INDEPENDENCE, and since then, it has been a
 powerful force opposing a united, independent
 Ireland and for continuing Northern Ireland ties
 with Great Britain.

ULTRA, British security classification for
 information gained from the German 
ENIGMA code,
 broken early during World War II. The Germans did
 not know that the Enigma transmitting machine had
 been reproduced by Polish intelligence just before
 the outbreak of the war and given to the British,
 who then broke the code. The Allies therefore had a
 critically important intelligence advantage
 throughout the war-so crucial that the British
 government felt unable to forewarn 
COVENTRY of
 the 
MOONLIGHT SONATA bombings slated for November
 14-15, 1940. The existence of ULTRA was disclosed
 publicly only in the mid-1970s.

ultrasound (ultrasonic waves), high-frequency
 sounds above the range of hearing, used in
 
SONAR-inspired techniques in which pulses of
 ultrasonic waves are sent out and the resulting
 reflected echoes translated, through 
ELECTRONICS,
 into an image on a 
CATHODE RAY TUBE. Various
 researchers in America and Europe experimented with
 ultrasound in medicine from the 1940s, but not
 until the early 1960s, in the work of Scottish
 physician Ian Donald, were ultrasound "pictures"
 good enough for diagnostic use. From then,
 ultrasonography was widely used, especially by
 obstetricians and gynecologists, who can scan the
 fetus for signs of trouble, and by physicians
 seeking to examine internal organs, and to check
 for tumors or stones. Ultrasonic waves also were
 used therapeutically as early as 1944, when
 physicians found that they could be used to destroy
 tumors; unfortunately, they destroyed healthy
 tissue as well. But at lower levels ultrasound has
 been used to aid healing, and in specially designed
 machines called lithotripters they are used to
 break up kidney and gall stones, eliminating the
 need for an operation. Ultrasound also has been
 used in industry to detect faults or flaws in
 structures or products and to speed up chemical
 reactions.

ultraviolet (UV), type of low-frequency 
RADIATION
 beyond the violet end of the visible-light part of
 the electromagnetic spectrum, called "black light"
 because it is invisible, though its effects can be
 seen; known since 1801, it was put to wide use only
 in the 20th century. Since 1900, when Danish
 physician Niels Ryberg Finsen discovered that
 ultraviolet rays killed germs, UV lamps have been
 used to sterilize rooms in institutions such as
 hospitals and also vaccines, blood plasma, and body
 tissues. Although small amounts of ultraviolet
 light are beneficial, helping the body make
 
VITAMIN D and preventing rickets, the larger
 amounts in sunlight can cause skin cancer. In the
 late 20th century, depletion of the
 ultraviolet-shielding 
OZONE LAYER by chemicals
 such as 
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCs), created
 concern about the danger to humans of increased
 ultraviolet rays.

uncertainty principle, theory in physics,
 propounded by Werner 
HEISENBERG in 1927, that the
 position and the momentum of a body cannot both be
 calculated at the same time with full accuracy; the
 more accurate the one measurement, the less
 accurate the other. The uncertainty principle
 undercut the idea that it was possible to know
 everything about the universe, given sufficient
 information. That idea troubled many scientists,
 among them Albert 
EINSTEIN, prompting his famous
 demurral: "God may be subtle, but He is not
 malicious."

UNESCO, initials of the 
UNITED NATIONS

 EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION,
 a 
UNITED NATIONS special agency.

UNICEF, initials of the 
UNITED NATIONS

 INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN'S FUND, a 
UNITED NATIONS
 special agency.

unidentified flying object (UFO), phenomenon in or
 from the sky that cannot be otherwise explained by
 the observer or by scientific evaluators. From the
 late 1940s people from many parts of the world,
 though especially in the United States, reported
 sighting seemingly extraterrestrial objects. A 1947
 Washington observer dubbed one a "flying saucer," a
 name that stuck, even being translated into "flying
 sickle" in the Soviet Union. In 1948 the U.S. Air
 Force started Project Blue Book, designed to gather
 reports of UFO sightings, accumulating more than
 12,600 in 21 years; other countries kept similar,
 though sometimes spottier, records. Many sightings
 were quickly identified with known events, such as
 meteors, satellites, unusual aircraft, and other
 meteorological, astronomical, or man-made
 phenomena; others were dubbed "unidentified," hence
 their current name. In the United States, periodic
 scientific evaluations of the records, notably in
 1952, 1966, and 1968, rejected the notion of
 extraterrestrial visitations; after the 1969 report
 prepared by Edward U. Condon, Project Blue Book was
 ended. Some scientists dissented, however, noting
 the small number of unexplained sightings, and
 continued studying UFOs and exploring the
 psychology of UFO experiences. Meanwhile, sightings
 continued, though apparently declining somewhat
 after the 1960s.

unified field theory, so far, a vain attempt to
 reconcile in one comprehensive theory both
 gravitation and electromagnetic phenomena; an
 attempt at which Albert 
EINSTEIN and many other
 20th-century scientists failed. American physicists
 Steven Weinberg and Sheldon Lee Glashow, and
 Pakistani physicist Abdus Salam, in 1967
 independently developed the electroweak  theory, an
 attempt to reconcile electromagnetism with the
 "weak" force leading to 
RADIOACTIVE decay; it won
 them the 1979 Nobel Prize for Physics. More
 recently, attempts to unify the various forces have
 been called grand unification theories (GUTs),
 starting with the one put forth in 1974 by Glashow
 and Howard M. Georgi.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.,
 Soviet Union), successor state to the Russian
 Empire, which ended with the 
FEBRUARY REVOLUTION
 of 1917 and the establishment of the 
PROVISIONAL

 GOVERNMENT led by Alexander 
KERENSKY. That
 government was in turn destroyed by the 
OCTOBER

 REVOLUTION of 1917, which brought to power the
 
BOLSHEVIKS, led by 
LENIN. On July 10, 1918, the
 Bolsheviks established the Russian Federated
 Socialist Republic (RSFSR). On conclusion of the
 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR in 1922 the Soviet Union was
 formally established as the Union of Soviet
 Socialist Republics, in form a federation of
 autonomous republics, but in practice a highly
 centralized one-party Communist state. Both form
 and reality continued through the long dictatorial
 rule of Joseph 
STALIN and during the rules of his
 successors, until the reforms of the 
GORBACHEV
 era brought massive change to Soviet political and
 economic life.

UNITA, popular shorthand for the 
NATIONAL UNION

 FOR THE TOTAL INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA, by which the
 organization is best known.

United Arab Emirates, until 1968 a group of
 absolute monarchies along the Persian Gulf that
 were de facto British protectorates, called Trucial
 States after the early 19th-century treaties
 concluded with the British, which promised British
 protection in return for abstention from piracy.
 Great Britain announced its intention to withdraw
 its armed forces from the area in 1968; in the
 period December 1971-February 1972, Abu Dhabi,
 Ajman, Dubai, Fujaira, Ras al-Khaima, Sharja, and
 Umm al-Qaiwain federated into the United Arab
 Emirates.

United Arab Republic, the name of 
EGYPT, 1958-71,
 first taken during the 1958-61 union with Syria and
 kept until adoption of the country's present name,
 the Arab Republic of Egypt.

United Front, a Communist policy initiated by
 Comintern head Georgi 
DIMITROV in his 1935
 "United Front" speech to the 
COMMUNIST

 INTERNATIONAL, in which he called for unity
 against the growing menace of fascism. Stressing
 cooperation with liberal, socialist, and democratic
 forces throughout the world, it was a major
 departure from previous policy, which had stressed
 independent Communist operation and sharp attacks
 on socialist organizations. In Germany that policy
 had enormously helped the rise of fascism. The
 United Front policy was followed until the
 
NAZI-SOVIET PACT of 1939, which abruptly severed
 Communist links with anti-fascists throughout the
 world, until the Nazi attack upon the Soviet Union
 in 1941 made cooperation once again permissible.
 During the late 1930s Communists in many countries
 entered into such mainstream activities as the
 organization of the mass- production industries in
 the United States and the organization of the
 governing 
POPULAR FRONT in France.

United Nations (UN), the international organization
 developed after World War II to replace the 
LEAGUE

 OF NATIONS; with its 159 nation-members it is
 humanity's main forum in the late 20th century,
 though never the world parliament envisaged by some
 of the founders of the League and of the UN. Need
 for and intent to develop the UN were stated at
 several Allied World War II conferences; practical
 organization went forward at the 
DUMBARTON OAKS

 CONFERENCE of 1944, and the UN and its Charter
 were formally born at the 
SAN FRANCISCO

 CONFERENCE of June 1945. The UN's five
 secretary-generals, Trygve 
LIE, Dag
 
HAMMARSKJOLD, U THANT, Kurt 
WALDHEIM, and
 Javier 
PEREZ DE CUELLAR, have scored limited
 peacekeeping successes, mediating conflicts in
 Cyprus and the Congo in the early 1960s, helping to
 settle the 1980s 
IRAN-IRAQ WAR, and stationing
 peacekeeping observers in the Middle East and south
 Asia. Several specialized UN organizations, such as
 the postwar 
UN RELIEF AND REHABILITATION

 ADMINISTRATION (UNRRA), the 
WORLD HEALTH

 ORGANIZATION (WHO), the 
UN INTERNATIONAL

 CHILDREN'S EMERGENCY FUND (UNICEF), the 
FOOD AND

 AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO), the 
UN

 EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

 (UNESCO), and related bodies have made made
 substantial contributions to world health,
 productivity, and welfare. The United Nations
 Declaration on Human Rights, adopted in 1948 under
 the leadership of Eleanor 
ROOSEVELT, has
 attempted, though with limited success, to provide
 a human rights standard throughout the world.
 Perhaps the most visible contribution of the UN,
 however, has been the development of a stable
 international forum through which the smaller
 nations of the world can reach a worldwide
 audience.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
 Organization (UNESCO), a 
UNITED NATIONS special
 agency established in 1946 to foster international
 cultural, educational, and scientific cooperation
 and to promote intellectual freedom. It has since
 developed a very wide range of projects and
 activities, but has also encountered considerable
 criticism for allegedly wasteful expenditures and,
 from the late 1970s, for activities allegedly aimed
 at limiting freedom of the press rather than
 promoting intellectual freedom.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
 Office of the (UNHCR), a special agency formed by
 the 
UNITED NATIONS in 1951, succeeding the UN
 Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA)
 and the International Refugee Organization as the
 main UN organization dedicated to helping those
 millions in many countries displaced by wars,
 revolutions, and other massive disorders, as in
 China, Chile, Hungary, Algeria, and dozens of other
 countries during the past four decades. UNHCR won
 the 1954 Nobel Peace Prize.

United Nations International Children's Fund
 (UNICEF), a 
UNITED NATIONS special agency
 established in 1946 as the UN International
 Children's Emergency Fund and then dedicated to
 meeting the emergency needs of young people in hard
 hit countries during the immediate post-World War
 II period. Its role was later expanded to include
 both emergency and long-term programs for young
 people throughout the world. UNICEF won the 1965
 Nobel Peace Prize.

United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation
 Administration (UNRRA), an international
 organization that actually predated formation of
 the 
UNITED NATIONS, being organized in 1943 by
 the 
ALLIES to provide emergency and refugee aid
 in areas freed from 
AXIS control; it continued
 until 1947 as a UN special agency. UNRRA, working
 primarily in China and Eastern and Southern Europe,
 played a major role in postwar reconstruction, in
 the return of millions of displaced persons to
 their homes, and in the resettlement of those who
 did not wish to go home after the war. Its first
 two directors in the critical early years were
 Herbert H. 
LEHMAN and Fiorello H. 
LA GUARDIA.


United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine
 Refugees (UNRWA), from 1949 the main 
UNITED

 NATIONS agency attempting to help Palestine
 refugees and to that end operating camps and
 feeding, housing, and providing medical care,
 schools, and other necessities for an estimated l.5
 million refugees throughout the Middle East.

United States v. Butler (1936), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision invalidating the
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT (
AAA), a major
 piece of 
NEW DEAL legislation.

United States v. Darby (1941), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision validating the Fair Labor
 Standards Act, which for the first time provided
 federally guaranteed minimum wages and overtime
 pay.

United States v. Nixon (1974),  a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court case that forced president Richard M.
 
NIXON to produce the 
WATERGATE tapes and to
 supply them to the special prosecutor. His
 subsequent compliance led directly to his
 resignation, for after the contents of the tapes
 were disclosed, he faced impeachment.

United States v. United States District Court for
 the Eastern District of Michigan (1972), a
 landmark U.S. Supreme Court case, in which the
 Court curbed the widespread wiretapping, bugging,
 and other electronic domestic surveillance
 activities of the 
NIXON administration's Justice
 Department, by forcing disclosure of the
 information derived to the defendants in a Michigan
 bombing case.

UNIVAC, first electronic 
COMPUTER available for
 commercial use and the first to store data on
 
MAGNETIC TAPE. It was built in 1951 by John
 William Mauchly and John Presper Eckert, makers of
 the 
ENIAC, one of the earliest all-electronic
 computers, introduced in 1946. 
UNIVAC was used by
 CBS to make the first 
TELEVISION network
 predictions about the presidential election in
 1952.

UNRRA, the initials of the 
UNITED NATIONS RELIEF

 AND REHABILITATION ADMINISTRATION, the major
 post-World War II 
UNITED NATIONS relief
 organization.

Unsafe at Any Speed (1965), the pioneering consumer
 safety book by Ralph 
NADER; it attacked motor
 vehicle safety and helped to begin the era of
 consumerism in the United States.

Upper Volta (Independent Republic of Upper Volta),
 the former name of 
BURKINA FASO. Upper Volta was
 a French colony until August 5, 1960.

Ur, city in southern Iraq, home of the biblical
 Abraham and center of the Sumerian civilization,
 which invented writing; it was rediscovered and
 excavated (1922-34) by Leonard 
WOOLLEY.

uranium 235 (U-235), rare 
ISOTOPE of uranium,
 occurring with the more common U-238 in a ratio of
 less than 1 to 100; material used for 
NUCLEAR

 FISSION, as in 
ATOMIC BOMBS and 
NUCLEAR

 REACTORS, from 1942, notably in the bomb used on
 
HIROSHIMA in 1945.

Uranus, planetary target of space probes, most
 notably the U.S. Voyager 2, which arrived in the
 region in 1986 and broadcast striking pictures of
 its rings.

Urey, Harold Clayton (1893-1981), U.S. chemist, who
 in 1931 discovered 
DEUTERIUM, a hydrogen
 
ISOTOPE with twice the mass of ordinary hydrogen,
 winning him the 1934 Nobel Prize for Chemistry.
 Urey continued to explore other isotopes and played
 a key role in developing for the 
MANHATTAN

 PROJECT a method for extracting the 
URANIUM
 isotopes needed for 
NUCLEAR FISSION. After the
 war he urged nuclear disarmament and turned away
 from nuclear research, to geophysics. In 1953 he
 and Stanley Miller pioneered in producing amino
 acids, basic to life, by sending an electrical
 spark through a chemical "stew" much like that
 thought to have existed when life began on Earth.


Urschel, Charles, a wealthy U.S. businessman
 kidnapped by George "Machine Gun" Kelly and others
 in Oklahoma City on July 22, 1933; he was released
 after a $200,000 ransom had been paid but was able
 to lead the police to Kelly, who was sentenced to
 life imprisonment. The case received enormous
 publicity, to a considerable extent promoted by J.
 Edgar 
HOOVER, then bent on further developing the
 FBI's public image.

Uruguay Round, the 1980s set of negotiations
 organized by the 
GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND

 TRADE (GATT) in an attempt to reduce international
 trade and tariff barriers.

U.S.S.R., the initials of the 
UNION OF SOVIET

 SOCIALIST REPUBLICS (Soviet Union).

U-2 incident, shooting down by the Soviet Union of
 an American 
CIA U-2 reconnaissance plane in
 Soviet air space, and capture of its pilot, Francis
 Gary 
POWERS, on May 1, 1960. Powers was tried as
 a spy and imprisoned; he was exchanged in February
 1962 for Soviet spy Rudolph 
ABEL.

V-1 and V-2 bombs (Vergeltungswaffen, or Vengeance
 Weapons), early 
ROCKET-powered 
GUIDED MISSILES,
 developed by Wernher von 
BRAUN's team, built and
 tested at 
PEENEMUNDE, and used in World War II by
 the Germans to mount terror attacks against
 Britain. The V-1, or "buzz bomb," controlled by a
 preset guidance system, was first used in June
 1944. The V-2, a longer-range missile (190 miles)
 bearing a ton of explosives, traveled faster than
 the speed of sound and so gave no approach warning;
 it was first used in September 1944 against Paris
 and then over London. Although neither was a
 decisive military weapon, the V-bombs did kill many
 civilians; they were taken out of action by capture
 of their production sites as the Allies moved into
 Europe. After the war Wernher von Braun and more
 than 100 other German rocket experts (most of the
 Peenemunde technical staff) came to the United
 States, providing much of the technical basis for
 developments in missiles and space rockets. Over 70
 V-bombs were also brought to the United States and
 then set off at the White Sands Proving Ground in
 New Mexico 1946-51, providing rocket-handling
 experience crucial to the development of
 
INTERCONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILES (ICBMs) and
 
SATELLITES for space exploration.

vacuum tube, type of 
ELECTRON TUBE that uses a
 vacuum rather than a gaseous medium, a device basic
 to 20th-century 
ELECTRONICS, as in 
COMPUTERS,
 until the development of 
TRANSISTORS in 1948.

Van Allen, James Alfred (1914- ), U.S. physicist
 specializing in research of the upper atmosphere,
 who predicted the existence of the two wide bands
 of 
RADIOACTIVE particles circling the Earth;
 named the Van Allen Belts, they were discovered by
 the 
U.S. SATELLITE EXPLORER 1 in 1958. In the
 late 1950s Van Allen helped spark the
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR and greatly
 influenced the U.S. space program.

Van Allen Belts, two wide bands of 
RADIOACTIVE
 particles circling the Earth, discovered by the
 
U.S. SATELLITE EXPLORER 1 in 1958; they were
 predicted by and named after U.S. physicist James
 
VAN ALLEN.

Vance, Cyrus Roberts (1917- ), U.S. lawyer who, as
 secretary of the army 1962-63 and deputy defense
 secretary 1964-67, was deeply involved in growing
 American involvement in the 
VIETNAM WAR, which he
 at first supported and then opposed. By 1968 he was
 urging President Lyndon B. 
JOHNSON to disengage.
 He was a Vietnam peace negotiator in 1968-69, and
 secretary of state from 1977 to 1980, resigning in
 disagreement with President Jimmy 
CARTER over the
 failed commando attempt to free the 
IRAN

 HOSTAGES, which he had from the first opposed.

Vandenberg, Arthur Hendrick (1884-1951), U.S.
 journalist and Michigan Republican senator
 (1928-51). An isolationist before World War II,
 Vandenberg became an internationalist and strong
 supporter of the 
UNITED NATIONS, the 
NORTH

 ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO), and the
 
MARSHALL PLAN during the postwar period. He was
 chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee,
 1946-48.

Vanguard, series of 
U.S. SATELLITES, first
 launched successfully on March 17, 1958. Vanguard 1
 showed that the Earth is not perfectly round.
 Vanguard 2, launched on February 17, 1959, sent
 back the first 
TELEVISION photographs of cloud
 cover, becoming essentially the first weather
 station in space.

Van Lawick-Goodall, Jane, married name of
 ethologist Jane 
GOODALL.

Vanuatu (Republic of Vanuatu), until 1980, as the
 New Hebrides, a joint British-French colony; it
 became an independent nation and 
COMMONWEALTH
 member on July 30, 1980.

Vardar, Battle of the (September 15-29, 1918), the
 final battle of World War I on the Balkan front.
 Allied forces attacked Bulgarian forces, soon
 breaking through the Bulgarian center and routing
 the Bulgarian army. The offensive ended with the
 Allied-Bulgarian armistice of September 29, 1918.


Vargas, Getulio Dornelles (1883-1954), Brazilian
 political leader who unsuccessfully ran for the
 presidency in 1930; he charged election fraud and
 came to power in the coup of October 1930, then
 ruling as a dictator although titled provisional
 president. He was elected to the presidency by the
 Congress in 1934, but in 1937 took dictatorial
 power openly, ruling absolutely until the October
 1945 military coup. Attaining the presidency in the
 free election of 1950, he committed suicide in 1954
 when faced with an armed forces demand that he
 resign.

Vatican II (Second Vatican Council; 1962-65), by
 far the most important council of the Roman
 Catholic Church in the modern period, initiated by
 Pope 
JOHN XXIII to reexamine the role of the
 church in the modern world. It resulted in major
 restatements of Catholic goals, fostered greatly
 increased ecumenicism, asserted the right to
 religious liberty, condemned anti-Semitism, and
 significantly modified liturgical practices and
 approaches, including the use of many languages and
 of indigenous musical forms. The impact of Vatican
 II on Catholics was enormous and continued to be
 so, although substantial conservative rebalancing
 occurred in later years.

Vatican City State, the independent Catholic state
 set up within the city of Rome by the 
LATERAN

 TREATY of 1929.

Veblen, Thorstein (1857-1929), U.S. economist, a
 powerful and effective critic of unrestrained
 monopolistic ownership and practice, whose
 thinking, beginning with publication of his book
 The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899),
 considerably influenced the U.S. "trustbusters" of
 the early 20th century. In that book he coined the
 phrase "conspicuous consumption" to describe and
 pillory the conduct of many of the American rich;
 the phrase then moved into the language.

V-E Day (May 8, 1945), the day on which the
 
ALLIES announced that 
WORLD WAR II ended in the
 European theater.

Vela Hotel, series of U.S. military 
SATELLITES
 designed to detect nuclear explosions, in use from
 1963.

Velikovsky, Immanuel (1895-1979), Russian-American
 astronomer, whose theories of cosmic collisions
 with Earth caused wide controversy from 1950. A
 physician and psychologist by training, Velikovsky
 asserted in Worlds in Collision (1950) that the
 Earth had been struck by a comet in 1500 
B.C.
 Many of his writings, drawing on myth and ancient
 history, proved widely popular though of
 questionable scientific soundness. Some of his
 suggestions, however, have been confirmed, such as
 his prediction of 
RADIO waves from 
JUPITER.

Venizelos, Eleutherios (1864-1936), Cretan lawyer,
 active in Cretan politics after 1896, who became
 Greek prime minister in 1910 and from then until
 1932 was a leading figure in Greek politics. He led
 Greece during the successful first 
BALKAN WAR,
 into World War I on the Allied side, and through
 the negotiations of the postwar period. He was
 premier for the last time 1928-32, into the early
 years of the 
GREAT DEPRESSION; after losing power
 he was involved in an unsuccessful coup attempt in
 1935, which drove him into exile.

Ventris, Michael George Francis (1922-56), English
 linguist who in 1952, with John Chadwick,
 deciphered the previously untranslated Mycenean
 script called Linear B, (recognizing it as an
 archaic form of Greek) uncovered on Crete during
 excavations led by Arthur 
EVANS.

Venus, planetary target of U.S.S.R and U.S. space
 probes. In 1965 the Soviets' Venera 3 crashed into
 Venus, becoming the first spacecraft to reach
 another planet. Capsules from other Venera
 spacecraft were landed on Venus in 1969 and 1970,
 and cameras briefly sent back the first pictures
 from the planet. Venera 8 made the first soft
 landing on Venus in 1972; Venera 9 and 10 sent back
 the first pictures from the surface of Venus in
 1975; Venera 13 and 14 made the first successful
 "soft" landings on Venus in 1982. In 1962 and 1967
 U.S. 
MARINER spacecraft flew by Venus and
 transmitted data; two 
PIONEER craft were launched
 toward Venus in 1978. These probes showed, among
 other things, that Venus rotates "backward" and is
 not covered with water, as was once thought. After
 an 11-year hiatus, in May 1989 the United States
 launched the space probe Magellan on a 15-month,
 795-million-mile voyage toward Venus; it was the
 first such craft to be released from a 
SPACE

 SHUTTLE, the Atlantis. In a sign of easing
 relations, Soviet space scientists shared their
 Venus data with their U.S. counterparts.

Vera (September 1959), a Japanese hurricane
 estimated to have killed 4,500 people and injured
 40,000 on Honshu, with huge property damage.

Vera Cruz, occupation of (April 1914), shelling and
 occupation of the Mexican port of Vera Cruz by the
 U. S. Navy, in an attempt to stop German arms from
 reaching Mexican dictator Victoriano 
HUERTA; the
 arrest of several American sailors at Tampico was
 used as a pretext for the action. The Americans
 held the city until November, some months after
 Huerta had been deposed.

Verdun, Battle of (February 21-December 18, 1916),
 a 6-month-long unsuccessful assault by major German
 forces against the French fortress of Verdun, in
 World War I. In the autumn of 1916 Allied forces
 went on the offensive on the 
SOMME and on the
 Eastern Front; French forces at Verdun then retook
 almost all of the ground previously captured by the
 Germans. An estimated l million casualties were
 suffered at Verdun; 550,000 of them French, 450,000
 German. 
PHOSGENE gas was introduced by the
 Germans at Verdun.

Versailles, Treaty of (June 28, 1919), document
 signed on conclusion of the 
PARIS PEACE

 CONFERENCE of 1919. Germany admitted war guilt and
 agreed to pay heavy reparations. The newly
 recreated nation of Poland received (Posen) and the
 
POLISH CORRIDOR, which gave it access to the
 Baltic Sea. Danzig (Gdansk), at the sea end of the
 Polish Corridor, was made a free city. France
 received 
ALSACE-LORRAINE and the 
SAAR, while
 several areas of Germany were to be occupied for
 5-15 years, and the 
RHINELAND was demilitarized.
 All of the these key treaty provisions later became
 issues exploited by Adolf 
HITLER in his run-up to
 World War II, the issue of the Polish Corridor
 becoming the German excuse for the invasion of
 Poland that set off that war.

Verwoerd, Hendrik Frensch (1901-66), South African
 sociologist and newspaper editor, who in 1937
 resigned his university post in protest against
 South African admission of German Jewish refugees.
 He edited a Nationalist newspaper from then until
 1948, when he was appointed to the Senate. He
 became native affairs minister in 1950 and prime
 minister in 1958, in both positions fostering and
 more fully developing 
APARTHEID. He was prime
 minister during the 1960 
SHARPEVILLE MASSACRE,
 the subsequent outlawing of the 
AFRICAN NATIONAL

 CONGRESS, the imprisonment of Nelson 
MANDELA,
 and South Africa's 1961 withdrawal from the
 
COMMONWEALTH. He was assassinated on September 6,
 1966, by an insane white government employee.

Very Large Array (VLA), series of large dishes for
 collecting radio waves, arranged to work together
 to scan significant portion of the sky; used in
 
RADIO ASTRONOMY.

Vichy government, collaborationist government
 formed in Vichy, France, in July 1940, after the
 World War II fall of France to the Germans. The
 Vichy government ruled "unoccupied" France; in
 fact, it was a German puppet government, at first
 headed by Phillippe 
PETAIN and after April 1942
 by Pierre 
LAVAL. Although the government
 nominally existed until the end of the war, the
 Germans took over physical control of the
 previously unoccupied parts of France in November
 1942, and the puppet government fled to Germany as
 Allied forces liberated France.

Victor Emmanuel III (1869-1947), king of Italy
 (1900-44) after his father, Humbert I, was
 assassinated. In 1922 he refused to authorize
 Italian army opposition to Benito 
MUSSOLINI'S

 MARCH ON ROME, instead making Mussolini prime
 minister and paving the way for the Italian fascist
 regime. He cooperated with Mussolini thereafter,
 turning against him and fleeing from the Germans to
 Allied sanctuary in 1943. He then effectively left
 public life, abdicating in 1946.

Vienna Summit (June 1979), a meeting between U.S.
 president Jimmy 
CARTER and Soviet premier Leonid
 
BREZHNEV, at which they signed the 
SALT II arms
 limitation agreements.

Vietcong, North Vietnamese guerrilla units fighting
 inside South Vietnam during the 
VIETNAM WAR.

Vietminh, the Vietnamese forces that defeated the
 French during the 
INDOCHINA WAR; they were
 composed of combined Communist and nationalist
 elements, all led by 
HO CHI MINH.

Vietnam (Socialist Republic of Vietnam), until 1954
 part of French Indochina, which included 
CAMBODIA

 (KAMPUCHEA) and 
LAOS. Vietnam was split into
 North and South Vietnam after the 
INDOCHINA WAR
 and became a single nation after North Vietnamese
 victory in the 
INDOCHINESE CIVIL WAR, which was
 accompanied by the 
VIETNAM WAR; the present
 republic came into being on July 2, 1976. The
 leader of the Vietnamese independence movement was
 
HO CHI MINH.

Vietnam Civil War (1954-75), conflict that began
 following the end of the 
INDOCHINA WAR as a
 low-level 
VIET CONG guerrilla insurrection in
 South Vietnam. During the 1950s and early 1960s
 this grew into an insurgency threatening the
 continued existence of the South Vietnamese
 government, with North Vietnamese regular army
 forces joining Viet Cong units. The United States
 began its long Vietnam commitment in the mid-1950s,
 moved into direct military involvement in 1961, and
 began its major commitment late in 1965. From then
 until American withdrawal in 1973 the 
VIETNAM WAR
 superseded the existing civil war, with South
 Vietnamese and U.S. military forces together
 fighting North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces.
 After American withdrawal the end of the civil war
 was in sight. The North Vietnamese began their
 final offensive in late 1974; they took Saigon on
 April 30, 1975, ending the civil war.

Vietnam War (1965-73), the period of massive U.S.
 intervention in the 30-year sequence of conflicts
 that began with the 
VIETNAMESE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

 (INDOCHINA WAR; 1945-54), which developed into the
 
VIETNAMESE CIVIL WAR (1954-75), part of which was
 the major Southeast Asian conflict that was the
 Vietnam War. Some hundreds of U.S. advisers were in
 Vietnam after completion of French withdrawal in
 1956; by mid-1964, 20,000-25,000 U.S. troops and
 hundreds of American airplanes were in Vietnam.
 However, it was clear that North Vietnamese regular
 troops and 
VIETCONG guerrillas were about to
 defeat South Vietnamese forces, and bring what was
 then 20 years of conflicts to an end. In February
 1965, using the authorization provided by the
 
TONKIN GULF RESOLUTION of 1964, President Lyndon
 B. 
JOHNSON ordered heavy bombing of North
 Vietnam. In March 1965 U.S. troops in battalion
 strength began to arrive, and in July 1965 the
 decision to commit hundreds of thousands of troops
 was made. Allied non-Vietnamese forces at maximum
 commitment in 1969 totaled approximately 700,000;
 625,000 of them Americans, the others from
 Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, South
 Korea, and Thailand. Allied forces sustained more
 than 50,000 battle-connected deaths, more than
 160,000 wounded, and more than 5,000 prisoners of
 war or missing in action. South Vietnamese forces
 sustained approximately 200,000 battle-related
 deaths and 500,000 wounded. North Vietnamese
 regular armed forces and Vietcong guerrilla
 casualty figures are unavailable, as are civilian
 casualties, after many years of countrywide
 guerrilla warfare in South Vietnam and heavy,
 sustained U.S. bombing of North Vietnam,
 guerilla-held areas in South Vietnam, and
 substantial portions of Laos and Cambodia. Between
 mid-1965 and January 1968, U.S.-South Vietnamese
 efforts failed to destroy the guerrilla forces in
 South Vietnam, while casualties mounted and U.S.
 antiwar opinion rose; in that period the Vietnam
 War was the most unpopular war in U.S. history.
 Antiwar opinion became decisive after the North
 Vietnamese 
TET OFFENSIVE of early 1968, which
 failed in military terms but was the turning point
 in the war, because it was widely interpreted in
 the United States as providing convincing evidence
 that there was no "light at the end of the tunnel."
 The Tet Offensive was closely followed by President
 Johnson's bombing pause, his announcement that he
 would not seek another term, and the opening of
 peace talks in Paris. Then followed years of
 off-and-on peace talks, the attempt by the United
 States to "Vietnamize" the war by strengthening
 South Vietnamese forces so that they might stand on
 their own, renewal of U.S. bombing, incursions into
 Laos and Cambodia, the mining of North Vietnamese
 harbors, and continuation of the long war;
 meanwhile, U.S. antiwar forces continued to press
 for disengagement. Such matters as the 
MY LAI

 MASSACRE, the 
PENTAGON PAPERS revelations, the
 
ELLSBERG break-ins, and the 
KENT STATE KILLINGS
 made U.S. withdrawal inevitable, even though it was
 clear that "Vietnamization" had not worked and that
 ultimate North Vietnamese victory was certain. U.S.
 withdrawal came after the cease-fire agreement of
 January 1973; North Vietnamese victory in the long
 civil war came with the fall of Saigon, on April
 30, 1975.

Vietnam War of Independence, alternate name for the
 
INDOCHINA WAR.

Viking, series of U.S. spacecraft that reached
 
MARS in 1976, Viking 1 transmitting data for over
 5 years.

Villa, Francisco "Pancho" (Doroteo Arango;
 1878-1923), Mexican bandit, who became a
 revolutionary general during the 
MEXICAN

 REVOLUTION, joining the forces of Francisco
 
MADERO in 1910. In 1912 he was imprisoned by
 Victoriano 
HUERTA in Mexico City but escaped
 north over the border and was back in Mexico in
 1913, then becoming a major factor in the civil war
 until his defeat at the Battle of 
CELAYA in April
 1915. In March 1916 Villa's forces raided north
 over the border, attacking Columbus, New Mexico.
 U.S. forces led by General John J. 
PERSHING then
 invaded northern Mexico, seeking Villa, whom they
 never found. Reconciled with the Mexican
 government, which made him a general after making
 common cause with him against the Americans, Villa
 retired in 1920. He was assassinated in 1923.

Vimy Ridge (April 9, 1917), site of a World War I
 Canadian attack that cost 11,000 casualties during
 the first day of the Battle of 
ARRAS.

Vincennes incident (July 3, 1988), the shooting
 down of Iran Air Flight 655-an Airbus A300 carrying
 290 people from Bandar Abbas in Iran across the
 Strait of Hormus to Dubai, by a surface-to-air
 
MISSILE from the cruiser U. S. S. Vincennes,
 operating in the Persian Gulf during the 
IRAN-IRAQ

 WAR. The Americans had mistaken the Airbus for an
 F-14 with aggressive intentions. All of those
 aboard were killed. The Iranian government charged
 that the action was deliberate, and the U.S.
 government defended the action as an error
 occurring minutes after a skirmish in which the
 Vincennes had been engaged. The U.S. government
 offered compensation to the families of those
 killed.

Vinson, Frederick Moore (1890-1953), U.S. lawyer,
 Kentucky Democratic Congressman (1923-29; 1931-38),
 federal court of appeals judge (1938-43), head of
 the wartime Office of Economic Stabilization
 (1943-45), and secretary of the treasury in the
 first 
TRUMAN administration (1945-46); in 1946
 Harry S. Truman appointed him chief justice of the
 United States. On the Court, he was generally a
 liberal but also tended to support such Truman
 administration actions as the steel mill seizures
 of 1952 and the 
SMITH ACT Communist prosecutions.


Violencia, La, the 
COLOMBIAN CIVIL WAR of
 1947-58, a protracted rural guerrilla war in which
 an estimated 200,000-300,000 people died.

viruses, disease-causing organisms on the border
 between life and nonlife, reproducing like living
 things, though normally dependent on living cells
 for growth and reproduction, but forming crystals
 like salt or sugar. In 1898 Dutch botanist Martinus
 Willem Beijerinck found an infectious agent he
 believed to be liquid and named it virus (Latin for
 "poison"); and as early as 1910 Francis Peyton Rous
 had recognized that viruses can cause some
 
CANCERS in animals. By 1915-16 British researcher
 Frederick William Twort and French-Canadian
 researcher Felix-Hubert D'Herelle had found,
 independently, that some viruses eat bacteria;
 D'Herelle called them bacteriophages
 (bacteria-eaters). But not until 1935 did American
 biochemist Wendell Meredith Stanley first isolate a
 living virus, in crystal form, for which he shared
 the 1946 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Two years later
 British plant pathologist Frederick Charles Bawden
 found that the virus contained 
RNA, nucleic acids
 common to living things. Too small for ordinary
 microscopes, viruses were first photographed in
 1942 by Italian-American microbiologist Salvador
 Edward Luria with the aid of an 
ELECTRON

 MICROSCOPE. In 1946 Max Delbruck and Alfred Day
 Hershey independently found that genetic matter
 from different viruses could be combined to form a
 new virus, for which they shared with Luria the
 1969 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine; their
 discoveries laid the groundwork for later 
GENETIC

 ENGINEERING. Just after World War II, U.S.
 microbiologist John Franklin Enders was the first
 to successfully grow viruses in test tube cultures,
 using 
PENICILLIN to inhibit bacterial growth and
 allow the virus to grow unaffected; for this work
 he shared the 1954 Nobel Prize for Physiology or
 Medicine. By 1949 he had learned how to grow the
 
POLIO virus in human tissues, laying the
 groundwork for Jonas 
SALK's and Albert 
SABIN's
 1950s breakthroughs on the 
POLIO VACCINE. In 1955
 German-American biochemist Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat
 confirmed earlier theories that a virus consisted
 of RNA plus a protein coat; the complete genetic
 structure of a virus was worked out by other
 scientists in 1978. With the development of genetic
 engineering, some viruses were tailored to serve as
 vaccines, the first, in 1986, being a vaccine
 against herpes in swine.

Vishinsky, Andrei Yanuarievich (1883-1954), Russian
 lawyer and diplomat, a Social Democrat who became a
 
BOLSHEVIK, saw service during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL

 WAR, and became a leading Soviet jurist during the
 1920s and 1930s. He was chief government prosecutor
 during the 
MOSCOW TRIALS of the 1930s, later
 becoming a deputy foreign minister; he was foreign
 minister, 1949-53, and Soviet 
UNITED NATIONS
 representative, 1953-54.

vitamins, substances essential to the body in small
 amounts, their absence causing various deficiency
 diseases; from vita (Latin for "life") and amino (a
 nitrogen group found in many vitamins). Some foods
 were known from the 19th century to be effective in
 preventing certain diseases, but British biochemist
 Frederick G. Hopkins first recognized in 1906 that
 necessary substances he called "accessory food
 factors" existed. In 1912 Polish-American
 biochemist Casimir Funk named such substances and
 studied some of the group later called B vitamins.
 American biochemist Elmer V. McCollum (and others)
 discovered in 1913 that more than one vitamin
 existed and began designating them by letters. As
 more vitamins were discovered, many deficiency
 diseases were prevented or cured.

vitamin A, key 
VITAMIN discovered in 1913 by
 American biochemist Elmer McCollum and others,
 found to be important to vision and growth though
 toxic in large quantities. Vitamin A was first
 isolated in 1937 by Swiss chemist Paul Karrer and
 independently by Austrian-German chemist Richard
 Kuhn and others.

vitamin B, group of related 
VITAMINS in foods
 such as liver, whole grains, and beans, foods known
 from the 19th century to be effective in preventing
 various vitamin-deficiency diseases even though
 vitamins were as yet unknown. Austrian-American
 physician Joseph Goldberger showed (1915-25) that
 the B vitamins niacin and nicotinamide were a
 preventative for the disease pellagra. In 1925 he
 also isolated vitamin B, or riboflavin, synthesized
 for medical use by 1935. By 1926 scientists had
 discovered that vitamin B, or thiamine, was a
 preventative for the disease beriberi; by 1931 its
 formula had been established, and by 1936 it had
 been synthesized. The complex structure of vitamin
 B was worked out on a 
COMPUTER in 1956 by Dorothy
 
HODGKIN; others quickly isolated the substance
 itself. But its effects had long been seen in the
 liver-diet treatment successfully employed against
 
ANEMIA from 1926.

vitamin C (ascorbic acid), key 
VITAMIN common in
 citrus fruits and paprika, lack of which was long
 known to result in scurvy. Vitamin C was discovered
 independently in 1928 by Hungarian-American
 biochemist Albert Szent-Gyorgyi and American
 Charles King, who first isolated it from lemon
 juice in 1932; others synthesized it 2 years later.
 American biochemist Linus 
PAULING caused
 considerable controversy when in 1970 he suggested
 that vitamin C was a preventative for the common
 cold, causing millions to take large quantities of
 vitamin C tablets despite the lack of hard
 evidence.

vitamin D, key group of 
VITAMINS found in fish
 liver oils; such oils were long used to treat
 rickets, but vitamin D was unknown until 1931-6,
 when three key D vitamins were identified. Vitamin
 D was later found to be made more potent by
 exposure to the 
ULTRAVIOLET RAYS in sunlight.

Vittorio Veneto, Battle of (October 24-November 4,
 1918), the final battle of World War I on the
 Italian-Austrian front. Allied forces split the
 Austrian army, which soon collapsed; 300,000
 Austrian prisoners were taken. The offensive ended
 with the Austrian-Allied armistice of November 4,
 1918.

V-J Day (August 15, 1945), the day on which the
 
ALLIES announced that World War II had ended in
 the Pacific theater.

Vladivostok summit (November 1974), a superpower
 summit meeting at which U.S. president Gerald R.
 
FORD and U.S.S.R. premier Leonid 
BREZHNEV
 developed some limited agreement on the ground
 rules for the continuing 
SALT II talks, although
 the worsening of American-Soviet relations that
 followed the 1979 Soviet invasion of 
AFGHANISTAN
 vitiated moves toward agreement on nuclear
 disarmament during that period.

Voice of America, U.S. foreign-language 
RADIO
 service, operating since 1942, run by the United
 States Information Agency and often staffed by
 immigrants and political refugees.

Volstead Act, the enabling 1920 federal law that
 began the enforcement of 
PROHIBITION.

Vorster, Balthazar (1915-83), South African lawyer
 and Afrikaner activist, a Nazi sympathizer who was
 imprisoned for pro-Nazi activities during World War
 II (1942-44). He became a 
NATIONAL PARTY member
 of Parliament in 1953 and was justice minister
 1961-66, in that position taking a leading role in
 the outlawing of the 
AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS,
 the imprisonment of Nelson 
MANDELA, and the
 violent suppression of civil and political
 liberties in his country. He became prime minister
 in 1966, succeeding assassinated Hendrik
 
VERWOERD, and continued to rigidly enforce
 
APARTHEID and suppress opposition. He resigned
 because of ill health in 1978, then became
 president. He left public life in June 1979 after
 widespread criticism of his role in the illegal use
 of government propaganda funds.

Voskhod, feries of U.S.S.R. spacecraft. Voskhod 1
 put the first three-person crew in space on October
 12, 1964; Voskhod 2, launched on March 18, 1965,
 carried the first astronaut to take a 
SPACE WALK
 outside the spacecraft, Aleksei 
LEONOV.

Vostok, series of U.S.S.R. spacecraft, built under
 the direction of Sergei 
KOROLEV, that first put
 humans in orbit. On April 12, 1961, Yuri 
GAGARIN
 circled the Earth in Vostok 1 on a 1.8-hour flight.
 Vostok 6 launched the first woman into space,
 Valentina 
TERESHKOVA, on June 16, 1963.

Vostok I, the first spacecraft; it orbited Earth
 once, on April 12, 1961, piloted by Soviet
 cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin.

Voting Rights Act of 1965, law that outlawed the
 series of discriminatory tests that had for
 generations been used by white voter registrars to
 disenfranchise Black Americans in the South, it
 provided for direct federal supervision, as
 necessary, of southern voter registration. Mass
 Black registration and voting followed and with it
 the emergence of powerful Black electoral influence
 in the southern states. After 1965 large numbers of
 Black elected officials emerged, with a new
 willingness to engage in coalition politics on the
 part of white political leaders throughout the
 south.

Voyager, series of U.S. spacecraft making
 interplanetary probes. Voyager 1 and 2, launched in
 1977, flew by 
JUPITER in 1979 and 
SATURN in
 1980 and 1981, photographing their rings and
 discovering new moons, then taking divergent paths.
 Voyager 1 headed for outer space; Voyager 2 headed
 for 
URANUS, photographing its rings from nearby
 in 1986, and for 
NEPTUNE in 1989, discovering 6
 new moons and several unusual rings before passing
 beyond into space.

Voyager, specially built, very light airplane that
 in 1986 made the first nonstop flight around the
 world, taking 9 days; it was piloted by U.S.
 aviators Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager.

Voyager sinking (February 10, 1964), the sinking of
 the destroyer Voyager at Jervis Bay, New South
 Wales, Australia, after it collided with the
 aircraft carrier Melbourne: 82 people died.

Waffen SS, the sizable front-line fighting force of
 the Nazi SS, among the more tenacious combat units
 of the German army during the last years of World
 War II, as they fell back before the Allied
 European armies. Waffen SS units committed many of
 the most serious Nazi atrocities in occupied
 Europe.

Wagner, Robert Ferdinand (1877-1953), U.S. lawyer,
 and New York legislator, judge, and four-term
 Democratic senator (1927-49), who initiated much
 pioneering labor and labor-related legislation at
 both state and federal levels, including the New
 York State workmen's compensation law and such
 major 
NEW DEAL measures as the 
WAGNER ACT
 (National Labor Relations Act), 
SOCIAL SECURITY
 Act, National Industrial Recovery Act, and the
 
FEDERAL EMERGENCY RELIEF ACT.

Wagner Act (Wagner-Connery Act; National Labor
 Relations Act), U.S. 
NEW DEAL legislation enacted
 in July 1935, that established the 
NATIONAL LABOR

 RELATIONS BOARD (NLRB), specified a number of
 employer unfair labor practices, provided for
 single majority union representation in each
 bargaining unit, and gave the NLRB power to decide
 union certification questions, including the right
 to conduct a secret ballot to determine workers'
 bargaining preferences. Because of employer
 resistance, the Wagner Act did not go fully into
 effect until declared constitutional by the Supreme
 Court in National Labor Relations Board v. Jones &
 Laughlin Steel Corporation in 1937; it then played
 a major role in the unionization of the mass
 production industries and of many other industries
 as well.

Wainwright, Jonathan Mayhew (1883-1953), U.S.
 officer, who saw service in the Philippines before
 and during World War I. Back in the Philippines at
 the outbreak of World War II, he became commander
 of remaining U.S.-Philippine forces in 1942, after
 the evacuation of Douglas 
MACARTHUR, ultimately
 surrendering 
CORREGIDOR to the Japanese. He
 survived the 
BATAAN DEATH MARCH and subsequent
 imprisonment, and was present at the formal
 Japanese surrender aboard the Missouri in Tokyo
 Bay, on September 2, 1945.

Waite, Terry, one of the 
LEBANON HOSTAGES, a
 British Anglican church hostage negotiator, who was
 kidnapped by Moslem extremists on January 20, 1987.


Wake Island, Battle of (December 8-23, 1941), early
 World War II attack on the small Wake Island
 garrison by Japanese bombers on December 8, 1941.
 An amphibious assault on December 11 was
 unsuccessful, but a second assault, on December 23,
 took the island.

Wald, Lillian D. (1867-1940), U.S. nurse, who in
 1893 organized the settlement house that became the
 
HENRY STREET SETTLEMENT on New York's lower East
 Side. In 1902 she initiated the first public school
 nursing program, and became the leading U.S. public
 health nurse of her time.

Waldheim, Kurt (1918- ), Austrian diplomat, who saw
 service in the German army during World War II, and
 pursued a long career in Austrian diplomacy and
 politics before becoming fourth secretary-general
 of the 
UNITED NATIONS 1972-81. In that position
 he pursued UN relief activities in the 
THIRD

 WORLD and maintained peacekeeping forces in the
 Middle East, but otherwise had little impact on the
 main events of the time. When he became president
 of Austria in 1986, a major international
 controversy arose over his alleged links to Nazi
 atrocities in Yugoslavia and Greece during World
 War II. He at first denied and then admitted seeing
 service in the area, and then denied participation
 in or even knowledge of the Nazi atrocities in
 question.

Walesa, Lech (1943- ), Polish electrician who was
 fired for being a leader of the 1970 Gdansk Lenin
 Shipyard demonstrations, continued his organizing
 work during the 1970s, and emerged as Poland's
 chief labor leader. As head of 
SOLIDARITY he led
 the 1980 
GDANSK LENIN SHIPYARD STRIKE that forced
 government recognition and concessions. Although he
 was imprisoned for almost a year after the
 declaration of martial law and the outlawing of
 Solidarity in December 1981, he remained
 underground leader of the Polish labor movement,
 emerging again in 1988 with the
 Solidarity-government talks that led to the 1989
 legalization of Solidarity.

Walker-Whitworth espionage ring, a U.S. espionage
 group that operated for an unknown time (at least
 17 years) under the leadership of U. S. Navy
 warrant officer John Walker, who sold to the Soviet
 Union classified information that had been gathered
 by himself; his brother, Arthur Walker; his son,
 Michael Walker; and his associate, Jerry Whitworth.
 All four were arrested in 1985 and sentenced to
 long terms of imprisonment.

Wallace, George Corley (1919- ), U.S. lawyer and
 Alabama Democratic state legislator, judge, and
 governor (1963-67), who was a leading Southern
 segregationist during the 1960s. He promised to and
 did "stand in the schoolhouse door" in an attempt
 to block school integration, the schoolhouse door
 being the registration facility of the University
 of Alabama in June 1963. Federalized National Guard
 troops cleared the door, as did federal law
 officers and troops elsewhere in Alabama. He was
 the presidential nominee of the American
 Independent party in 1968, carrying five southern
 states. He was wounded in an assassination attempt
 on May 15, 1972, at Laurel, Mississippi.

Wallace, Henry Agard (1888-1960), U.S. agricultural
 scientist and journalist, who became Franklin D.
 
ROOSEVELT'S secretary of agriculture and
 developed the 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT

 ADMINISTRATION (AAA). He was vice-president,
 1941-45, and secretary of commerce, 1945-46. A
 liberal, he spoke against the foreign policy of the
 subsequent 
TRUMAN administration as the 
COLD

 WAR began to develop, and lost his cabinet
 position. In 1948 he ran as 
PROGRESSIVE PARTY
 presidential nominee; his party was widely attacked
 as being pro-Soviet, and although he received more
 than 1 million votes, his defeat was so decisive as
 to essentially end his political career. His career
 did not revive even though he broke with his party
 a few years later over his support of the 
UNITED

 NATIONS Korean action.

Wall Street bombing, explosion on September 16,
 1920, that killed 30 people and injured hundreds
 more. No one claimed "credit," and the bombing was
 unsolved; anarchists were widely blamed for the
 action in that 
RED SCARE period.

Wang Ching-wei (1883-1944), Japanese-supported
 ruler of occupied China from March 30, 1940, who
 had in the early years of the century been a chief
 aide to 
SUN YAT-SEN and then head of the left
 faction of the 
KUOMINTANG. In the early 1930s he
 was president of the Kuomintang.

War Communism, the internal economic policies
 followed by the Soviet government from 1918 to
 1921, a period in which the new 
BOLSHEVIK
 government attempted to take over direct control of
 every aspect of the country's economic life. The
 new government nationalized almost all of Soviet
 industry as the country experienced runaway
 inflation, increasingly severe famines, rural
 unrest, and the widespread confiscation of food
 supplies by government forces-all while the
 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR was being fought. The
 
KRONSTADT sailors' rebellion of 1921 signaled the
 depth of the crisis generated by War Communism, and
 precipitated 
LENIN'S more moderate 
NEW ECONOMIC

 POLICY.

War on Poverty, a slogan put forward by U.S.
 president Lyndon Baines 
JOHNSON in 1964, as a
 basis for the wide range of economic legislation
 that resulted in formation of the Office of
 Economic Opportunity and such programs as the Job
 Corps, VISTA, and Head Start. During the early
 1970s most of the programs so generated were
 discontinued.

Warren, Earl (1891-1974), U.S. lawyer, prosecutor,
 Republican California governor (1943-53), and 1948
 candidate for the vice-presidency, on the 
DEWEY
 ticket; in 1953 Dwight D. 
EISENHOWER appointed
 him chief justice of the United States. During the
 next 16 years his court generated a series of
 landmark decisions, outlawing school segregation
 and defending the civil rights of Blacks and other
 minorities, ending the civil liberties abuses of
 the 
MCCARTHY period, enunciating the "one man,
 one vote" rule, and expanding and clarifying the
 rights of suspects and defendants. He was also
 chairman of the 
WARREN COMMISSION, which
 investigated the assassination of President John F.
 
KENNEDY.

Warren Commission, the 1963 U.S. federal commission
 appointed by President Lyndon B. 
JOHNSON to
 investigate and report on the assassination of
 President John F. 
KENNEDY; it was headed by Chief
 Justice Earl 
WARREN. After a 10-month
 investigation the Warren Commission reported that
 it could find no conspiracy, that Lee Harvey
 
OSWALD had acted alone, and that Oswald's
 assassin, Jack 
RUBY, had not known Oswald. The
 report caused great controversy, many still
 continuing to hew to the conspiracy theory even
 decades later.

War Resisters' International (WRI), an
 international pacificist and antiwar organization,
 founded in 1921, that advises and supports
 conscientious objectors, deserters, and other war
 resisters throughout the world.

Warsaw, Battle of (August 16-25, 1920), the most
 decisive battle of the 
SOVIET-POLISH WAR of 1920,
 in which the Polish army, led by General Josef
 
PILSUDSKI defeated the Soviet army, led by
 General Mikhail 
TUKHACHEVSKY.

Warsaw Ghetto rising (April-May 1943), revolt of
 Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto. After the Nazi conquest
 of Poland, the city's Jews had been forced into the
 Warsaw Ghetto. By the spring of 1943 the Nazis had
 sent an estimated 400,000-450,000 of them to 
DEATH

 CAMPS; the remaining 60,000 revolted, choosing to
 die with weapons in their hands rather than to be
 quietly led away to the Nazi gas chambers. They
 fought the Nazis for a month, ultimately running
 out of ammunition and supplies; few survived the
 battle and the Nazi murders that followed.

Warsaw Pact (Warsaw Treaty Organization), an
 international Soviet-bloc military organization
 established in 1955 pursuant to the terms of the
 Treaty of Warsaw, in response to the formation of
 the 
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO) and
 the rearmament of the Federal Republic of Germany.
 The organization provides a framework for joint
 military activities in Europe. Its seven member
 countries are Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, German
 Democratic Republic, Hungary, Poland, Rumania, and
 the Soviet Union.

Warsaw rising (August-October 1944), revolt of the
 Polish underground in Warsaw, trying to take the
 city from its small German garrison, as attacking
 Soviet forces approached Warsaw during the summer
 of 1944. The Soviet army stopped just across the
 Vistula River from the city while the Germans
 reinforced their garrison and in the next 2 months
 destroyed the poorly armed and supplied Polish
 resistance fighters, tens of thousands of
 noncombatants, and much of the city. The remaining
 Poles surrendered on October 2.

Washington, Booker Taliaferro (1856-1915), U.S.
 teacher, who during the late 19th century developed
 Tuskegee Institute in Alabama into the leading
 Black educational institution of the time; he was a
 major Black leader from the mid-1890s until his
 death. He publicly urged Blacks to accommodate to
 segregation and to develop practical skills and
 wealth, rather than to oppose racism directly and
 insist on equality. These views pleased some of the
 most powerful White political, social, and economic
 leaders of his time, who accepted him as the
 dominant leader of the American Black community.
 Their acceptance and material contributions helped
 him to become that leader, in fact, developing the
 power to reward his friends and punish his enemies
 within that community. A few Black leaders, such as
 William E. 
DU BOIS, took a far different view;
 they developed the 
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE

 ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE (NAACP), and began
 the process that would ultimately result in the
 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT and the formation of the
 modern U.S. Black community.

Washington summit (December 1987), the third
 meeting between U.S. president Ronald 
REAGAN and
 U.S.S.R. premier Mikhail 
GORBACHEV, at which both
 signed the 
INF TREATY and discussed outstanding
 differences between the two superpowers, with
 special attention to the resoluton of regional
 conflicts, signaling a great relaxation of tension
 between the two nations and at least a substantial
 truce in the decades-long 
COLD WAR.

Watergate (1972-74), the massive U.S. political
 scandal first exposed by the tenacious
 investigation of Washington Post reporters Robert
 
WOODWARD and Carl 
BERNSTEIN, assisted by their
 anonymous source, 
DEEP THROAT, which led to the
 resignation of president Richard M. 
NIXON after
 exposure of his complicity in a series of illegal
 acts directed at his domestic political opponents.
 The triggering event was the arrest of five
 burglars, Bernard L. Barker, Virgilio R. Gonzalez,
 Eugenio R. Martinez, James W. McCord, Jr., and
 Frank A. Sturgis, after they had broken into the
 national Democratic party headquarters in
 Washington's Watergate apartment complex, on June
 17, 1972, intending to install wiretaps. In January
 1973 they and two others, E. Howard Hunt and G.
 Gordon Liddy, were indicted and pleaded guilty;
 following that the entire Watergate story
 unfolded-in court, before a grand jury, and before
 a select committee of the Senate. Ultimately,
 Watergate was shown to be the illegal action at
 which Nixon and his co-conspirators were caught,
 one of many such connected illegal actions, which
 included the 
DIRTY TRICKS campaign for which
 Donald Segretti was later imprisoned, the 
PENTAGON

 PAPERS break-ins, large illegal campaign
 contributions, and the illegal use of those
 contributions by the Committee to Reelect the
 President (CREEP). Nixon and those around him
 attempted to cover their tracks but failed, and in
 late 1973 they foundered entirely over the matter
 of the Watergate tapes, recorded in the White House
 and revealing Nixon's complicity in the scandal. On
 October 20, 1973, Nixon fired special prosecutor
 Archibald Cox and Deputy Attorney-General William
 Ruckelshaus in the 
SATURDAY NIGHT MASSACRE that
 entirely destroyed Nixon's credibility and
 remaining public support. He was forced to appoint
 a new prosecutor, Leon Jaworski, and yield the
 tapes to the court although in altered condition.
 Nixon refused a later Jaworski demand for more
 tapes and documents, and on July 24, 1974, was
 compelled by the Supreme Court to comply. Facing
 three counts of impeachment, Nixon resigned,
 effective August 9, 1974; he was later pardoned,
 and thereby shielded from prosecution, by President
 Gerald R. 
FORD. Several of Nixon's subordinates
 and associates were convicted and imprisoned in
 connection with Watergate, including White House
 Chief of Staff H. R. 
HALDEMAN, presidential
 assistant John D. 
EHRLICHMAN, and former attorney
 general and chairman of the Committee to Elect the
 President John N. 
MITCHELL.

Watkins, James David (1927- ), U.S. naval officer
 who, in a 37-year naval career, held a number of
 senior positions, becoming an admiral in 1979,
 commander of the U.S. Pacific fleet 1981-82, and
 chief of naval operations 1982-86. After his
 retirement, he was appointed chairman of the
 national AIDS advisory commission by President
 Ronald 
REAGAN, in September 1987. In June 1988,
 he released a commission report that strongly urged
 major new national initiatives to combat the AIDS
 epidemic and its societal impacts, including a ban
 on AIDS-connected discrimination. On January 12,
 1989, he was named energy secretary by
 President-elect George 
BUSH.

Watkins v. United States (1957), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision, reversing the conviction of
 a witness before the 
HOUSE UNAMERICAN ACTIVITIES

 COMMITTEE for violations of Fifth Amendment due
 process, and at the same time directly attacking
 the witchhunting tactics of that committee. The
 decision reflected and contributed to changed
 national attitutudes as 
MCCARTHYISM waned.

Watson, James Dewey (1928- ), U.S. molecular
 biologist and co-discoverer (with Francis 
CRICK)
 of the 
DOUBLE HELIX form taken by the 
DNA
 molecule, the substance that carries and duplicates
 basic hereditary information; he shared the 1962
 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Crick
 and Maurice 
WILKINS. Watson's Double Helix
 (1968), describing the process of the discovery,
 was a surprise best-seller.

Watson, John Broadus (1878-1958), U.S.
 psychologist, who founded the school of psychology
 called 
BEHAVIORISM. Watson's view, first outlined
 formally in 1913, was that a person's observable
 and measurable responses to stimuli were the proper
 subject of psychology, and that behavior resulted
 from training (conditioning) rather than from
 instinct or heredity. His theories eschewed
 introspective approaches that focused on
 unobservable phenomena such as inner feelings.

Watson, Thomas John (1874-1956), U.S. computer
 industry executive, who pioneered in the
 development and sale of 
COMPUTERS and built
 International Business Machines (IBM) into the
 largest computer company in the world. His son,
 Thomas J. Watson, Jr., succeeded him, leading the
 company until 1979.

Watts and other 1960s race riots, a series of
 massive race riots initiated by dissatisfied Blacks
 in U.S. inner city areas, beginning with the summer
 riots of 1965 in the Watts district of Los Angeles,
 which set a pattern for riots during the following
 4 years. These riots resulted in hundreds of
 deaths, thousands of wounded, tens of thousands of
 arrests, hundreds of millions of dollars of
 property damage, and the use of tens of thousands
 of federal and state troops. After 1968 the rioting
 subsided, although isolated riots continued to
 occur on into the 1970s and 1980s.

Wavell, Archibald Percival (1883-1950), British
 officer, who saw service in the 
BOER WAR and
 World War I, and who became British Middle East
 commander in chief early in World War II. His
 forces scored major victories against larger
 Italian forces in North Africa early in World War
 II, but were defeated by German forces, and Wavell
 was recalled. At the outbreak of the Pacific war in
 December 1941, forces under his command lost much
 of Southeast Asia to the Japanese. He was
 next-to-last viceroy of India, being recalled in
 1947 when he opposed immediate independence.

wave-particle duality, idea that particles have
 wavelike aspects and waves have particle-like
 aspects. Drawing on the 1923 work of Arthur Holly
 
COMPTON and on Albert 
EINSTEIN's 1905 notion
 that matter and energy were interconvertible, Louis
 
DE BROGLIE first suggested in 1924 that particles
 such as
 ELECTRONS have the properties of both
 waves and particles. In 1926 Erwin 
SCHRODINGER
 provided some mathematical underpinning for such a
 theory, which was confirmed by several scientists
 using 
X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY in 1927.

Weathermen, a U.S. revolutionary group formed in
 1969 as a terrorist-oriented splinter of the
 fragmented 
STUDENTS FOR A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY. Its
 members went underground, many of them believing
 that U.S. society was ready to collapse; they were
 determined to speed that collapse and build a mass
 revolutionary movement aided by acts of random
 terror. Their estimates having proven entirely
 incorrect, some members of the organization began
 to reappear during the later 1970s and early 1980s,
 with several prosecutions resulting. While
 underground, some Weathermen destroyed themselves,
 in the highly publicized 1970 Greenwich Village
 explosion of their own small homemade-bomb factory.
 Others received long prison terms for their
 involvement in the abortive Nanuet, New York,
 Brink's robbery of 1981.

Webb, Beatrice Potter (1858-1943), and 
SIDNEY

 JAMES WEBB (1859-1947), British economists and
 Socialists who, together and with George Bernard
 
SHAW, stood at the intellectual center of British
 socialism through their leadership of the 
FABIAN

 SOCIETY. They were prolific writers: among their
 major works were The History of Trade Unionism
 (1894), Industrial Democracy (1897), Soviet
 Communism: A New Civilization? (1935), and her
 Minority Report as a member of the Royal Commission
 on the Poor Laws (1909). They were founders of the
 New Statesman and the London School of Economics;
 he was also a Labour MP, 1922-31, and a member of
 both Labour cabinets in the 1920s.

Weber, Max (1864-1920), German sociologist whose
 influential work, The Protestant Ethic and the
 Spirit of Capitalism (1904), linked the growth of
 capitalism to the ethos of Protestantism; his body
 of work stressed the importance of ideas in the
 development of societies and economic systems. His
 work on the laws of development of bureaucracy had
 major impact on later sociologists.

Webster, William Hedgcock (1924- ), U.S. lawyer,
 federal district court judge in Missouri, 1971-73;
 Court of Appeals judge, 1973-78; and director of
 the 
FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION (FBI)
 1978-87. In May 1987 President Ronald 
REAGAN
 appointed him head of the 
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE

 AGENCY (CIA); he was reappointed by incoming
 president George 
BUSH in December 1988.

Wedtech, a Bronx, New York, company that during the
 1970s and early 1980s successfully bribed
 government officials to secure Defense Department
 contracts and Small Business Administration grants
 and loans. In 1987 and 1988, Congressional
 investigations and federal prosecutors exposed what
 became a major scandal that ultimately contributed
 a count to the conviction of former White House
 aide Lyn Nofziger in February 1988, and triggered a
 major investigation of the possible role of Edwin
 Meese, then attorney general. Meese was not
 prosecuted, but resigned under fire in July 1988.
 In August 1988 Congressman Mario Biaggi, former
 Bronx borough president Stanley Simon, Wedtech
 founder John Mariotta, former Small Business
 Administration official Peter P. Neglia, Biaggi law
 partner Bernard G. Ehrlich, and Biaggi's son,
 Richard P. Biaggi, were all convicted in connection
 with the scandal.

Wegener, Alfred Lothar (1880-1930), German
 meteorologist and geologist, who in 1912 outlined
 the 
CONTINENTAL DRIFT theory described in his
 Origins of Continents and Oceans; he was also known
 for his Arctic climatological research, during
 which he lost his life.

Weimar Republic, the German republic that
 superseded the monarchy overthrown by the 
GERMAN

 REVOLUTION OF 1918; named after the Weimar
 Constitution of August 11, 1919, establishing it.
 The republic, always weak, ended on January 30,
 1933, when Adolf 
HITLER became chancellor of
 Germany.

Weinberger, Caspar Willard (1917- ), U.S. lawyer,
 active in California Republican politics during the
 1950s and 1960s, who was Federal Trade Commission
 chairman in 1970; deputy director and the director
 of the Office of Management and Budget, 1970-73;
 secretary of health, education and welfare,
 1973-75; and secretary of defense, 1981-87. As
 secretary of defense he strongly supported and
 secured greatly increased military expenditures.

Weir, Reverend Benjamin, one of the 
LEBANON

 HOSTAGES, an American who was kidnapped on May 6,
 1984, and released on September 14, 1985, as part
 of a complex set of negotiations between the U.S.
 government and those holding the hostages during
 that period, actions that ultimately led to the
 
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR.

Weiss, Carl, Louisiana doctor who assassinated Huey
 
LONG at Baton Rouge, Louisiana, on September 8,
 1935, and was then killed by Long's bodyguards.

Weizmann, Chaim (1874-1952), Russian-British
 chemist who became a leader of world 
ZIONISM,
 helping to develop the 1917 
BALFOUR RESOLUTION.
 He was president of the World Zionist Organization
 (1920-29), president of the Jewish Agency for
 Palestine (1929-31, 1935-46), and provisional and
 then first elected president of Israel (1948-52).


Welch, Joseph Nye (1890-1960), U.S. lawyer who
 represented the U.S. Army in the televised
 
ARMY-MCCARTHY HEARINGS (1954) and succeeded in
 discrediting Senator Joseph McCarthy and his
 associates before a national and international
 audience, thereby contributing greatly to the end
 of McCarthy's witchhunting career.

Welsh v. United States (1970), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision, making it possible for
 those opposing war for ethical and moral reasons to
 be granted conscientious objector status, joining
 those already able to do so because of religious
 convictions.

We shall fight on the beaches, ringing statement by
 British prime minister Winston 
CHURCHILL,
 speaking to the House of Commons on June 4, 1940,
 after the British cross-channel evacuation from
 
DUNKIRK; from "We shall not flag or fail. We
 shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France,
 we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall
 fight with growing confidence and growing strength
 in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever
 the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we
 shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight
 in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in
 the hills; we shall never surrender."

We Shall Overcome, song that became the anthem of
 the 
U.S. CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT.

West Bank, the west bank of the Jordan River;
 formerly Jordanian territory, occupied by Israel
 from 1967, and thereafter partially colonized by
 the Israelis. With a population of approximately 1
 million Palestinians, the area was the main site of
 the 
INTIFADA (uprising) beginning in 1988; Jordan
 withdrew from the West Bank and the 
PALESTINE

 LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO) proclaimed a
 Palestinian state, including the West Bank and the
 
GAZA STRIP.

West Coast Hotel Company v. Parrish (1937), a
 landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision, validating a
 Washington state law providing minimum wages for
 women and minors and reversing 
ADKINS v.
 Children's Hospital (1923).

Western Desert Campaign (December 9, 1940-February
 7, 1941), series of World War II engagements in
 North Africa. In September 1940 five Italian
 divisions invaded Egypt; the Italian force soon
 grew to 9 divisions. On December 9, 1940, British
 forces about one quarter their size, but with some
 armor, attacked Italian positions at Sidi Barrani,
 routed much more numerous Italian forces, and took
 38,000 prisoners. From January 1-7, British forces
 took Bardia and 
TOBRUK and ultimately captured a
 total of 130,000 Italians. The British suffered
 total casualties of fewer than 2,000 men.

Western Samoa (Independent State of Western Samoa),
 until World War I a German protectorate, then
 becoming a New Zealand 
LEAGUE OF NATIONS mandate
 territory, a 
UNITED NATIONS trust territory, and
 an independent nation and 
COMMONWEALTH member on
 January 1, 1962.

Westmoreland, William Childs (1914- ), U.S.
 officer, who saw service in World War II and Korea,
 and who in June 1964 became commander of U.S.
 assistance forces in Vietnam. He became commander
 of U.S. combat forces in Vietnam in August 1964,
 after passage of the 
TONKIN GULF RESOLUTION. He
 left Vietnam to become U.S. army chief of staff in
 the summer of 1968. As commander of American
 forces, he was both vigorously attacked and
 vigorously supported in the United States during
 the Vietnam years. In January 1982 he was strongly
 criticized in a CBS documentary and sued CBS for
 libel; the case was settled out of court in 1985,
 after a long trial, without damage payments.

West Virginia Board of Education v. Barnette
 (1943), a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision
 invalidating a compulsory flag salute law in West
 Virginia that had been challenged by members of
 Jehovah's Witnesses.

Weygand, Maxime (1867-1965), French officer, who
 held key staff positions during World War I, and
 was army commander in chief during the mid-1930s.
 In 1939 he came out of retirement to head French
 Near East forces, and in May 1940 replaced General
 Maurice Gamelin as head of all Allied forces in
 Western Europe. He soon called for capitulation to
 the Germans, and afterward served as 
VICHY
 defense minister. He was arrested by the Germans
 after their seizure of unoccupied France in 1942,
 and imprisoned for the balance of the war. He was
 later tried for treason and acquitted.

Whampoa Military Academy, a 
KUOMINTANG training
 school initiated by 
SUN YAT- SEN in 1923 and
 organized in 1924 by 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK, with Soviet
 advisers, after Chiang's return from military
 training in the Soviet Union; its graduates became
 key supporters of Chiang's rise to power.

What this country needs is a really good five cent
 cigar!, comment by U.S. vice-president Thomas R.
 
MARSHALL in 1917 during a long, slow Senate
 debate on national priorities.

Wheeler, Robert Eric Mortimer (1890-1976), British
 archaeologist who rediscovered one of the greatest
 Bronze  Age civilizations, centered at Harappa and
 Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley of northern India,
 and dating from about 2500-1500 
B.C. His
 fieldwork there and in Britain made him one of the
 seminal figures in modern archeology.

White, Byron Raymond (1917- ), U.S. lawyer, who was
 a college and professional football star in the
 late 1930s and 1940s as "Whizzer" White. A
 political associate of John F. 
KENNEDY during the
 1960 presidential campaign, he was an assistant
 U.S. attorney-general 1961-62, and was appointed by
 Kennedy to the Supreme Court in 1962. On the Court
 he was generally a moderate-to-conservative
 influence, often functioning as a swing vote
 between liberals and conservatives on close
 decisions.

White, Edward Douglass (1845-1921), U.S. lawyer,
 who saw service in the Confederate army during the
 Civil War, and was a senator from Louisiana when
 appointed by Grover Cleveland to the Supreme Court
 in 1894. On the Court he was generally a
 conservative, and continued to be so after William
 Howard 
TAFT appointed him chief justice in 1910.


White, Paul Dudley (1886-1973), U.S. cardiologist
 working at the Harvard Medical School, who
 pioneered in the use of the 
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH
 (ECG or EKG) to record the heart's electrical
 activity. A founder of the American Heart
 Association in 1922, he early emphasized the role
 of diet, stress, and exercise in the health of the
 heart, becoming famous as physician to President
 
EISENHOWER after his 1955 coronary.

White, Walter Francis (1893-1955), U.S. Black civil
 rights leader, who became active in the 
NATIONAL

 ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE
 (NAACP) shortly after his graduation from Atlanta
 University in 1916; he was assistant secretary
 (1918-31) and then executive secretary (1931-55) of
 the NAACP, leading it through the antilynching and
 fair employment practices campaigns of the 1930s
 and 1940s and through the early years of the modern
 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT.

Whitehead, Alfred North (1861-1947), British
 mathematician and philosopher who, with his protege
 Bertrand 
RUSSELL, made a landmark attempt to dev
 elop a solid substructure of logic for modern
 mathematics in Principia Mathematica (1910-13),
 work soon undercut by that of Kurt 
GODEL. In
 Britain and from the 1920s in America, Whitehead
 also worked in the philosophy of science, writing
 for both scholarly and popular audiences, as in his
 Science and the Modern World (1925).

Whitlam, Edward Gough (1916- ), Australian lawyer,
 a Labour member of parliament from 1952, and prime
 minister 1972-75, in that position pursuing a far
 more independent course in world affairs than the
 preceding 
MENZIES administration, while also
 encountering economic problems and political
 scandals at home. His government was dissolved by
 the governor-general in November 1975, and then
 lost the December general election.

WHO, the initials of the 
WORLD HEALTH

 ORGANIZATION, a 
UNITED NATIONS special agency.


Wiener, Norbert (1894-1964), U.S. mathematician,
 who developed the theory of 
CYBERNETICS (Greek
 for "the science of steering ships"). At first,
 Wiener focused largely on logic and mathematical
 fundamentals, studying with Bertrand 
RUSSELL and
 David 
HILBERT, and he continued to make key
 contributions to basic mathematics. But his work on
 
RADAR and missiles during World War II, and
 associated work with then-developing 
COMPUTERS,
 turned him toward studying information flow and
 control in machines as communication systems
 analogous to nervous systems in animals. He
 summarized his ideas in a 1948 book called
 Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the
 Animal and the Machine. This and many of his later
 works focused on the problems humans face in an
 automated society; their appeal ranged far beyond
 the scientific and technical community.

Wiesel, Elie (1928- ), Jewish-Rumanian-American
 writer and teacher. As an adolescent he spent most
 of World War II in Nazi 
CONCENTRATION CAMPS. In
 the mid-1950s he began a lifelong focus on the
 
JEWISH HOLOCAUST, also writing on other
 Jewish-related themes, including the situation of
 Soviet Jews. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
 in 1986.

Wiesenthal, Simon (1908- ), Jewish-Polish
 architect, imprisoned by the Nazis (1941-43,
 1944-45) who became a leading Nazi hunter during
 the post-World War II period. Immediately after the
 war he was employed as a war crimes investigator by
 the U.S. Army; he subsequently operated out of the
 Jewish Documentation Center, which he founded in
 1947. His best-known success came in 1960 with the
 location of Adolf 
EICHMANN, who was seized by
 Israeli agents in Argentina and later tried and
 executed in Israel.

Wiley, Harvey Washington (1844-1930), U.S. chemist
 and leader in the early 20th-century fight against
 adulteration of food. A chemistry professor, Wiley
 was the U.S. Department of Agriculture's chief
 chemist from 1883 to 1912, expanding his Bureau of
 Chemistry from a handful of employees to more than
 500. He and his staff, popularly called the Poison
 Squad, analyzed many foods for additives and
 adulteratives-sometimes testing them directly on
 themselves-and pressed for government regulation of
 the food industry. His efforts, along with widely
 read works by such 
MUCKRAKERS as Ida 
TARBELL
 and Upton 
SINCLAIR, spurred the passage of the
 landmark 1906 
PURE FOOD AND DRUG ACT.

Wilhelm II (1859-1941), emperor of Germany
 (1888-1918), the "Kaiser" who led the Central
 European powers and their allies during World War
 I. He abdicated in 1918, as the 
GERMAN REVOLUTION

 OF 1918 was beginning, and fled to Holland, where
 he spent the rest of his life.

Wilhelmina (1880-1962), queen of the Netherlands,
 1890-1948; during World War II she fled to London
 after the 1940 German invasion, there serving as a
 focus for continuing Dutch resistance. She
 abdicated in 1948 in favor of her daughter Juliana.


Wilkins, Maurice Hugh Frederick (1916- ), New
 Zealand-British biophysicist whose work in 
X-RAY

 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, along with that of Rosalind
 
FRANKLIN, produced key data that aided James
 
WATSON and Francis 
CRICK in uncovering the
 
DOUBLE HELIX structure of 
DNA; he shared with
 them the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology or
 Medicine.

Wilkins, Roy (1901-81), U.S. Black journalist and
 civil rights leader who became assistant secretary
 of the 
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF

 COLORED PEOPLE (NAACP) in 1931, editor of its
 publication, The Crisis, in 1934, and successor to
 Walter 
WHITE as leader of the NAACP, 1955-77.

Williams, Eric Eustace (1911-81), Trinidadian
 historian and socialist who studied, taught, and
 wrote in Great Britain and the United States before
 founding the People's National Movement in 1956.
 From 1956 until his death he led Trinidad and
 Tobago as chief minister and then as prime
 minister.

Williams, Vanessa, the 1983 Miss America, forced to
 resign after revelations that in 1982, as a college
 freshman, she had posed for some nude photographs.
 In 1984 Penthouse magazine announced that it would
 publish her nude photographs; this precipitated a
 national furor that forced her to resign her Miss
 America position, and sold a great many magazines.


Williams, Wayne B., young Black man accused of the
 
ATLANTA MASS MURDERS of 1979-81 and sentenced to
 life imprisonment.

Willkie, Wendell Lewis (1892-1944), U.S. lawyer,
 who became Republican presidential nominee in 1940,
 and was defeated by Franklin Delano 
ROOSEVELT. A
 liberal in his party, he supported the war effort
 fully during World War II, and in 1942 wrote the
 book One World, which called for international
 cooperation and organization in the postwar world.


Wilson, Charles Thomson Rees (1869-1959), Scottish
 physicist, who in 1911 developed the 
CLOUD

 CHAMBER, a device for tracking the path of
 subatomic 
PARTICLES and 
RADIATION, for which he
 won the 1927 Nobel Prize for Physics.

Wilson, Edward Osborne (1929- ), U.S. zoologist,
 who was a founder of sociobiology, an
 interdisciplinary science that focuses on the
 genetic roots of social behavior in humans and
 other animals, as outlined in his Sociobiology: the
 New Synthesis (1975); the theory is sometimes
 criticized as being excessively deterministic.

Wilson, James Harold (1916- ), British economist
 and teacher, who became a Labour member of
 Parliament in 1945, held several posts in the
 postwar Labour government, became party leader in
 1963, and was prime minister 1964-70, encountering
 major economic problems that contributed to
 Labour's surprise electoral loss in 1970. He
 returned to office in 1974 as prime minister of a
 Liberal-Labour coalition government, resigning
 unexpectedly in 1976. During the 1980s charges
 emerged that senior intelligence service officers
 had conspired to discredit him while in office, but
 they lacked full substantiation.

Wilson, Thomas Woodrow (1856-1924), 28th president
 of the United States, 1912-20; also lawyer, college
 professor, college president, and governor of New
 Jersey. As a candidate for the presidency, Wilson's
 program featured the 
NEW FREEDOM, an economic
 program calling for enhanced antitrust and
 financial system regulation coupled with tariff
 reform. A Democrat, in 1912 he defeated Republican
 William Howard 
TAFT and Progressive Theodore
 
ROOSEVELT, and in 1916 he defeated Republican
 Charles Evans 
HUGHES for the presidency. As
 president, he accomplished tariff reduction,
 introduced the first income tax law, and
 established the 
FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM and the
 
FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION. As second-term
 candidate, his chief slogan was "He kept us out of
 war." But on April 2, 1917, he asked Congress to
 declare a state of war against Germany, which was
 done on April 6. As wartime president, he
 established the War Industries Board, led by
 Bernard 
BARUCH, which exercised great control
 over the American economy throughout the war. On
 January 8, 1918, he introduced his 
FOURTEEN

 POINTS, a program for postwar settlements that
 included the establishment of the 
LEAGUE OF

 NATIONS; he took that program to the 
PARIS PEACE

 CONFERENCE of January 18, 1919, which culminated
 in the Treaty of 
VERSAILLES. But the Senate
 refused to ratify the treaty, balking at
 participation in the League of Nations, and the
 United States made a separate peace in 1921, after
 Republican Warren G. 
HARDING had become
 president.

Win, Ne (Maung Shu Maung; 1911- ), Burmese officer
 and nationalist, who fought with the Japanese
 during World War II, then joined the anti-Japanese
 revolt of the Burmese National Army in March 1945.
 During the postwar period he became a general in
 the Burmese army. In 1958 he took power in a
 bloodless army coup, relinquished control in 1960,
 and took power again in 1962, then ruling until
 forced by massive demonstrations to resign in July
 1988. However, he was widely thought not to have
 fully relinquished control, and to have been a
 major factor in the September 1988 coup that once
 again returned the army to power in Burma.

Windscale (Sellafield) nuclear accident (October 7,
 1957), a fire in the reactor core of Pile No. 1 at
 Great Britain's Windscale 
PLUTONIUM production
 plant, causing the release of very large quantities
 of 
RADIOACTIVE iodine into the air. The fire,
 which was finally extinguished on October 12,
 resulted in much environmental contamination in the
 area. In the wake of the event all livestock and
 milk in the immediate area were destroyed. The
 event was kept secret by the British government
 until 1978.

Windsor, duke and duchess of, title given by
 Britain's King 
GEORGE VI to 
EDWARD VIII and his
 wife, the former Wallis 
SIMPSON, for whom he had
 given up the throne in 1936.

Winnie Mae, airplane in which Wiley Post and Harold
 Gatty made the first round-the-world flight in
 1931.

Winter Palace, the czar's palace in St. Petersburg,
 Russia, where the 
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905
 began with the 
BLOODY SUNDAY massacres; later the
 Petrograd headquarters of Premier Alexander
 
KERENSKY'S PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT, which was
 assaulted and taken by 
BOLSHEVIK forces to begin
 the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION and the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL

 WAR.

wireless, popular name both for early 
RADIO and
 for telegraphy using radio signals, as pioneered in
 1901 by Guglielmo 
MARCONI.

Wise, Stephen Samuel (1874-1949), U.S. Reform
 Jewish rabbi, liberal, and Zionist leader who in
 1898 was a founder of the American Federation of
 Zionists, which later became the Zionist
 Organization of America. In 1916 he was a founder
 and later president of the American Jewish
 Congress, and in 1936 he was a founder of the World
 Jewish Congress, which he served as president until
 his death. During the Nazi period he was one of the
 world's leading anti-fascists; throughout his life
 he was a major Zionist leader.

Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann (1889-1951),
 Austrian-British philosopher, who made major
 contributions to modern theories of logic and
 language. Inspired by study with Bertrand 
RUSSELL
 in Britain, he wrote his key work on thought and
 language, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1922).

Wobblies, the popular name for members of the
 
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD (IWW).

woman suffrage, the worldwide movement to gain
 equal voting rights for women that began in the
 United States and Great Britain during the 19th
 century. In the United States the movement resulted
 in the 
NINETEENTH AMENDMENT (1920) and in Great
 Britain equal voting rights for women over 30 were
 obtained in 1918 and full equality in 1928. Equal
 voting rights were gained in Australia, New
 Zealand, and Scandinavia earlier in the 20th
 century, in Canada and many European countries
 after World War I, and spread to other parts of the
 world after World War II.

Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
 (WILPF), an international nonviolent peace and
 disarmament organization, founded in 1919, that
 campaigns and educates on peace-related matters and
 has consulting relationships with several 
UNITED

 NATIONS bodies. Jane 
ADDAMS and Emily Greene
 
BALCH were among its founders and early leaders.


women's liberation, a slogan and body of ideology,
 developed in the mid-1960s, that advocates complete
 equality for women in societal fact and by law,
 long-sought goals of the women's movement. The
 
NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR WOMEN (NOW) was formed
 in 1966 to drive toward realization of those goals,
 joining many women's and dual-sex organizations
 already advocating women's rights and equality. NOW
 moved a proposed 
EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT through
 Congress in 1971 and 1972 but failed to secure
 enough state victories to pass the amendment.
 Women's liberation was far more than a political
 movement, however; it was also a movement for
 social equality and freedom of choice in such areas
 as employment, reproduction, club membership, and
 education. Many women's liberation advocates called
 for special attention to foster long-deferred
 equality, in such areas as child care and
 professional training. A major and continuing
 national controversy developed on the issue of
 abortion, involving massive public pressure on both
 sides, a civil disobedience movement mounted by the
 
RIGHT TO LIFE MOVEMENT, and series of U. S.
 Supreme Court decisions, most notably Roe v. Wade.


women's suffrage, later alternate name for the
 movement called 
WOMAN SUFFRAGE.

Woodstock Festival, a massive August 1969 music
 festival attended by an estimated 400,000 young
 people, and a high point of the U.S.
 
COUNTERCULTURE. The festival was a
 quasi-religious experience for some of those
 attending, whose belief in peaceful simplicity,
 away from industrial society, seemed borne out by
 the experience.

Woodward, Robert Upshur (1943- ) and Bernstein, Carl
 (1944- ), U.S. journalists, who uncovered and
 ultimately broke the 
WATERGATE story while
 reporters for the Washington Post in 1972. With the
 help of anonymous informer 
DEEP THROAT, they
 followed the story from the arrest of the
 "plumbers" to the 
NIXON resignation, winning
 Pulitzer prizes and writing the best-selling All
 the President's Men (1974; film, 1976) and The
 Final Days (1976).

Woolley, Charles Leonard (1880-1960), British
 archaeologist, whose major fieldwork at many Middle
 Eastern and North African sites-especially at Ur
 (1922-34) in southern Iraq-rediscovered the full
 scale and significance of the ancient Sumerian
 civilization and of Mesopotamia as a whole in human
 history.

Works Progress Administration (WPA), a U.S. 
NEW

 DEAL agency, created in May 1935 and administered
 by Harry 
HOPKINS, that provided millions with
 jobs and created massive public works projects
 during the 
GREAT DEPRESSION, including building
 construction, roadbuilding, recreational projects,
 dams, bridges, clinics, and arts projects of many
 kinds.

World Bank, an informal name for three 
UNITED

 NATIONS agencies: the 
INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR

 RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT (IBRD), the
 
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION (IDA), and
 the 
INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION (IFC).

World Court (International Court of Justice), a
 body originally established as the Permanent Court
 of International Justice in the 
COVENANT OF THE

 LEAGUE OF NATIONS in 1920; in 1946 it became a UN
 agency. Headquartered in Geneva, it arbitrates and
 judges disputes submitted to it by member states,
 some of them provided for by treaties between those
 states. It sets no precedents and has no ability to
 enforce its decisions, functioning rather as a
 convenient way of settling some international
 disputes and as a moral voice as to others.

World Health Organization (WHO), a 
UNITED NATIONS
 special agency established in 1948 to promote
 worldwide public health activities, that has made
 enormous contributions to the health and medical
 care of humanity. These include the eradication of
 
SMALLPOX and the development of other massive
 immunization programs, the widespread establishment
 of sanitary practices, and the diminution of many
 epidemic diseases, including leprosy, 
POLIO,
 cholera, and malaria.

world must be made safe for democracy, The,
 statement by U.S. president Woodrow 
WILSON in a
 speech before Congress on April 2, 1917, in which
 he asked for a declaration of war on the Central
 Powers.

World War I (1914-18), major international conflict
 of the early 20th century, also called the Great
 War. The war, which began as an attack by
 Austria-Hungary on its smaller neighbor, Serbia,
 after the assassination of Archduke 
FRANCIS

 FERDINAND at 
SARAJEVO, soon involved every major
 and all but a few minor European countries; by 1917
 it had drawn in the United States, as well. It had
 been a war waiting to begin, as the European powers
 developed conflicting imperial ambitions, armed
 themselves, and settled into the two sets of
 alliances that quickly went to war in August 1914.
 The Allies were France, the British Empire, Russia,
 the United States, Serbia, Italy, Belgium, Greece,
 Rumania, Montenegro, Japan, and Portugal. The
 Central Powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary,
 Turkey, and Bulgaria. Together, they suffered 8
 million war dead of the 65 million mobilized, plus
 21 million wounded and an estimated 6-7 million
 civilian dead, which included those killed in the
 
ARMENIAN HOLOCAUST; civilian dead are probably
 underestimated if the famine and 
INFLUENZA

 PANDEMIC following the war are taken into account.
 The war brought revolution and civil war to Russia
 and revolution to Germany, dismembered
 Austria-Hungary, and laid much of the basis for
 World War II. It was, in sum, the worst catastrophe
 to befall humanity until then, and paved the way
 for the even greater catastrophes that were the
 combined wars and massacres of the interwar period
 and World War II. In the west, the war began with a
 successful German attack through Belgium and the
 Netherlands in conformance with the 
SCHLIEFFEN

 PLAN. After the initial Battles of the
 
FRONTIERS, German forces raced to the Marne,
 where they were stopped at the decisive first
 battle of the 
MARNE. Three and a half years of
 inconclusive 
TRENCH WARFARE followed, with such
 battles as those at 
VERDUN, on the 
SOMME, and
 at 
YPRES causing millions of  casualties. In 1918
 the Germans made a final attempt to finish the war,
 using Eastern Front reinforcements freed by Soviet
 withdrawal from the war; but they failed, with the
 Allies, now including substantial American forces,
 going over to the offensive and ultimately breaking
 through the German front. Inevitable defeat was
 then hastened by revolution in Germany, bringing
 the armistice of November 11, 1918. In the east
 early Russian successes were reversed at the
 battles of 
TANNENBERG and the 
MASURIAN LAKES in
 August and September 1914. This was a more fluid
 war than that in the west but one with comparable
 casualties. After the 
GORLICE-TARNOW BREAKTHROUGH
 of 1915 the Central Powers were on the offensive
 until the summer of 1916. Then the Russians mounted
 the 
BRUSILOV OFFENSIVE which, after initial
 successes, ultimately ground to a halt with
 tremendous casualties. Then began the processes of
 general disaffection and army mutiny that brought
 about the 
OCTOBER REVOLUTION and took the
 Russians out of the war. On the Italian front there
 was a long stalemate from May 1915, when Italy
 entered the war, to October 1917. In that period
 the Italians unsuccessfully attacked eleven times
 on the 
ISONZO River. In October 1917 German and
 Austrian troops attacked across the Isonzo at
 
CAPORETTO, taking hundreds of thousands of
 prisoners and driving to the Piave River. In
 October 1918 Allied forces destroyed the Austrian
 army at the battle of 
VITTORIO VENETO and began
 the final drive that ended with the Italian-front
 armistice of November 4, 1918. In the Balkans, the
 Serbs and Montenegrins first repulsed the invading
 Austrians, but by October 1915 Serbia and
 Montenegro had been taken by the Central Powers.
 Rumania entered the war on the Allied side in
 August 1916 but was defeated and signed an
 armistice on December 9, 1917. To the south, the
 British failed to take the Dardanelles and
 Gallipoli in 1915 and fought a 4-year war with
 Turkey in Mesopotamia and Palestine, eventually
 taking both; from 1916 they were allied with the
 revolutionary forces of the 
ARAB REVOLT against
 Turkey. Turkish and Russian forces also met in the
 Caucasus. German colonies in the Far East and East
 Africa were ultimately taken by Allied forces. At
 sea German 
SUBMARINE WARFARE seriously threatened
 Allied lifelines across the Atlantic until late
 1917, when improved antisubmarine devices and the
 development of the convoy system altered the
 balance in favor of the Allies. The British navy
 kept the main German fleet out of the war; The
 Germans ventured out only once, in 1916, fought the
 British at 
JUTLAND, and then retired. The 
PARIS

 PEACE CONFERENCE began on January 18, 1919.

World War II (1939-45), the major international
 conflict of the mid-20th century. The war began on
 September 1, 1939, with the Nazi invasion of
 
POLAND, a 
BLITZKRIEG that soon succeeded in
 destroying Polish armed resistance; it was followed
 by the Nazi-Soviet 
PARTITION OF POLAND, pursuant
 to the terms of the recently concluded 
NAZI-SOVIET

 PACT. Ultimately, it involved every major and most
 of the smaller nations in the world. Its coming was
 long foreseen, for World War I had not resolved
 many major Great Power problems, and the interwar
 period brought the 
GREAT DEPRESSION of the 1930s,
 the rise of 
FASCISM and militarism in Germany,
 Japan, and Italy, the failure of the 
LEAGUE OF

 NATIONS, and the inability of the Western powers
 to take effective action against the new
 aggressors. The European fascists moved against
 
ETHIOPIA, the 
RHINELAND, Republican Spain,
 
AUSTRIA, and 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA with impunity, and
 the Japanese moved against 
MANCHURIA and 
CHINA
 without democratic intervention. After 
MUNICH war
 was coming. It did; the Allies were ultimately the
 United States, the Soviet Union, the British
 Commonwealth, France, China, Poland, Yugos lavia,
 and many other countries; the Axis powers were
 Germany, Japan, Italy, and several smaller
 countries. Together, they suffered an estimated
 15-17 million war dead of the  90-100 million
 mobilized, plus 23-26 million wounded and an
 estimated 25-35 million civilian dead, which
 included those killed in the 
JEWISH HOLOCAUST.
 These figures do not include the millions more who
 died in the wave of civil wars and wholesale
 population movements that followed the war. World
 War II was by far the greatest catastrophe ever to
 befall humanity, and it ended with the use of the
 
ATOMIC BOMB, thereby creating the threat of a
 nuclear war that could be an infinitely greater
 catastrophe. In Europe the Polish invasion of 1939
 was followed by a period of quiet in the west; then
 the German invasion of Denmark and Norway, in April
 1940, was followed in May by the invasion of
 France, Holland, and Belgium, with the armored
 breakthrough in the Ardennes leading to the fall of
 France, the Allied evacuation from 
DUNKIRK, and
 the threat of invasion of Britain. But the RAF won
 the 
BATTLE OF BRITAIN in 1940, and the invasion
 did not come. In April 1941 Germany attacked and
 quickly took Yugoslavia and Greece and in June
 invaded the Soviet Union, swiftly taking much of
 western part of the country, besieging 
LENINGRAD,
 and threatening 
MOSCOW. But the Soviet winter
 counteroffensive of 1941-42 saved Moscow, and the
 German spring and summer offensives of 1942 failed
 to break Soviet resistance. Soviet armies went on
 the offensive after the decisive victory at
 
STALINGRAD in the winter of 1942-43, and
 ultimately fought their way into Germany. The
 United States entered the war with the Japanese
 attack on 
PEARL HARBOR, on December 7, 1941,
 which destroyed much of the battleship component of
 the Pacific fleet, leaving the vital aircraft
 carrier force unharmed. The Japanese then proceeded
 to take the Philippines, much of the South Pacific,
 and all of Southeast Asia, including Hong Kong,
 Singapore, Malaya, Burma, and Indonesia; but they
 failed to take Australia and New Guinea or to
 conclude their long war in China. In April 1942, at
 the Battle of the 
CORAL SEA, and in June, at the
 decisive Battle of 
MIDWAY, the U.S. carrier fleet
 turned the course of the war in the Pacific. From
 then on, starting  with the U.S. victory at
 
GUADALCANAL late in 1942, the Americans followed
 the Japanese across the Pacific, fed by the
 enormous American productive capacity that was able
 to aid the Soviets, supply the Allied invasions in
 
NORTH AFRICA, SICILY, ITALY, and 
NORMANDY, and
 build the U.S. fleet into by far the most powerful
 naval force in the world. By 1945 they were
 preparing to invade the Japanese mainland. From
 1942 the Allies went on the offensive around the
 western and southern perimeter of Europe. Although
 German submarine attacks were extremely effective
 against Allied shipping in the North Atlantic for
 much of the war, the combined British and American
 fleets kept the Atlantic supply lines open, sank
 many German submarines, and ultimately won the
 antisubmarine war. In North Africa a see-saw desert
 war was resolved by the British victory at 
EL

 ALAMEIN on November 4, 1942, coupled with an
 Allied North African seaborne invasion on November
 8; North Africa was secured in the spring of 1943.
 Sicily and Italy were invaded in the summer of
 1943, the Germans soon taking over the Italian war
 and beginning the long retreat north that would
 last for the rest of the war. And on June 6, 1944,
 the successful Allied landings at 
NORMANDY began
 the drive across Europe that ultimately took Allied
 troops into Germany to meet Soviet troops coming
 from the east. The European war ended with the
 unconditional surrender of Germany, the document of
 surrender being signed at Reims, France, on May 7,
 1945. The end of the Pacific war came after the
 American atomic bombings of 
HIROSHIMA, August 6,
 1945, and 
NAGASAKI, August 9, 1945. On August 14
 the Japanese surrendered unconditionally. The
 surrender documents were formally signed on the
 U.S. battleship Missouri, in Tokyo harbor, on
 September 2, 1945.

WPA, the initials of the 
WORKS PROGRESS

 ADMINISTRATION, by which this U.S. 
NEW DEAL
 federal agency of the 1930s is best known.

Wrangel, Peter Nikolayevich (1878-1928), Czarist
 officer who fought under General Anton 
DENIKIN
 during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR and in 1920
 succeeded Denikin to command of the White armies in
 southern Russia. His forces were defeated in late
 1920; he and the remainder of his army were
 evacuated by the French navy to Constantinople.

Wright, Frank Lloyd (1867-1959), U.S. architect
 whose thoughts as to molding structures to fit
 human needs and reflect their environments, coupled
 with the structures themselves, exerted great
 influence on the development of modern architecture
 throughout much of his 70-year career and
 thereafter. Some of his most notable works are his
 own home at Taliesin, Wisconsin (1911, 1915, 1925),
 the Imperial Hotel, Tokyo (1922), Falling Water,
 Bear Run, Pennsylvania (1937), the Usonian homes of
 the 1930s, and New York's Guggenheim Museum,
 designed in 1943 and built in the late 1950s.
 Taliesin West, at Scottsdale, Arizona, remained an
 architecture school after his death.

Wright, James Claude, Jr. (1922- ), U.S. political
 leader, a Texas Democratic congressman from 1954, a
 liberal on domestic economic and civil rights
 matters who supported American involvement in the
 
VIETNAM WAR, but later in his career opposed
 
REAGAN administration interventionist policy in
 Central America. He was elected Democratic majority
 leader of the House of Representatives, 1977-87,
 and Speaker of the House from 1987. During the 1988
 presidential campaign, he came under Republican
 attack for alleged improprieties in office, an
 attack that continued in 1989 with a congressional
 committee investigation. The negative publicity led
 to his resignation in June 1989, the first House
 Speaker to be forced from office.

Wright, Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville Wright
 (1871-1948), U.S. inventors, brothers who
 developed the first engine-powered 
AIRPLANE.
 After early work with bicycles, they studied and
 improved on the glider; in 1900 they began flying
 their engineless craft off the sandy dunes called
 Kill Devil Hills, near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
 By 1903 they had added an engine to the light
 structure, and on December 17, 1903, flew the Flyer
 I (popularly dubbed the Kitty Hawk) on four
 flights; the first, by Orville, covered 120 feet in
 12 seconds. They continued to make improvements and
 in 1906 received a U.S. patent for their flying
 machine; 3 years later they incorporated the
 American Wright Company to manufacture them. Wilbur
 died in 1912; Orville continued to work as a
 consultant on aviation, notably during World War I.


Wu P'ei-fu (1874-1939), Chinese soldier, who served
 under 
YUAN SHIH-KAI and in the early 1920s became
 chief warlord in northern China. He failed to
 achieve the wider power he sought, being defeated
 in 1924 by a rival warlord, 
CHANG TSO-LIN, and
 then finally defeated in 1926 by the forces of the
 
NORTHERN EXPEDITION, led by 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK.

Wysznski, Stefan (1901-81), Polish Catholic priest
 who became primate of Poland in 1949 and a cardinal
 in 1953. An opponent of Poland's Communist
 government, he was imprisoned, 1953-56, and
 released during 
POLISH OCTOBER in 1956; he
 supported 
SOLIDARITY in the 1980s. He attempted
 to act as a mediator between Solidarity and the
 government, and resisted those forces within the
 labor movement and the country as a whole that
 wished to turn the Solidarity-government
 confrontation into an armed insurgency.

X-ray, type of low-frequency 
RADIATION, beyond
 
ULTRAVIOLET in the electromagnetic spectrum;
 discovered in 1895 but understood and widely
 applied only in the 20th century. In 1912 Max
 Theodor Felix von 
LAUE developed the technique of
 
X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, passing X-rays through
 crystals, in the process discovering X-rays to be a
 form of electromagnetic radiation. William Henry
 
BRAGG and his son, William Lawrence, used the
 technique to measure the wavelength of X-rays and
 also to study 
ATOMIC STRUCTURE by the pattern of
 X-rays reflected from atoms. Because X-rays have a
 very short wavelength and can pass through solids,
 they have been extremely useful in 20th-centrury
 medicine (identifying broken bones) and industry
 (identifying flaws in products). In 1926, Hermann
 J. Muller discovered that X-rays could cause
 mutations on 
GENES, but their harmfulness to
 tissues has been turned to medical advantage in the
 treatment of 
CANCERS.

X-ray crystallography, technique of passing
 
X-RAYS through crystals, whose evenly spaced
 atoms act as a grate, reflecting on a photographic
 plate, allowing measurements to be made of things
 otherwise too minute to measure. The technique was
 originally the idea of Max Theodor Felix von 
LAUE
 in 1912 and was refined by William Henry 
BRAGG
 and William Lawrence 
BRAGG, who first measured
 the wavelengths of X-rays. By 1927 scientists had
 used X-ray crystallography to confirm the theory of
 
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY. With X-rays of known
 wavelength, the technique was also used to study
 the 
ATOMIC STRUCTURE of crystals of various
 substances, allowing for major discoveries in
 theoretical chemistry. After World War II Dorothy
 
HODGKIN pioneered in using X-ray
 crystallography-along with a 
COMPUTER to analyze
 the results-to discover the structure of complex
 organic molecules such as 
PENICILLIN, INSULIN,
 and 
VITAMIN B12. In the 1950s British biochemists
 Maurice 
WILKINS and Rosalind 
FRANKLIN made
 X-ray crystallography studies of DNA, which aided
 Francis 
CRICK and James 
WATSON in uncovering
 the 
DOUBLE HELIX structure of the molecule of
 life.

xerography, inexpensive dry (xero in Greek) copying
 process developed in 1937 by Chester 
CARLSON and
 patented 2 years later. The xerographic process was
 first publicly demonstrated in 1948, and in 1959
 the Xerox Corporation introduced the first
 xerographic copier for commercial use,
 revolutionizing paper handling in offices and
 schools around the world.

Yablonski murders, the December 31, 1959, killings
 of United Mine Workers leader Joseph Yablonski and
 his wife and daughter by the agents of UMW
 president W. A. "Tony" 
BOYLE. Boyle was
 ultimately convicted of the murder; three others
 pleaded guilty.

Yalta Conference (February 4-11, 1945), the second
 
ROOSEVELT-CHURCHILL-STALIN World War II summit
 meeting, which reached decisions that were to
 considerably affect the shape of the postwar world,
 especially regarding Eastern Europe. The conferees
 agreed that the Soviet Union was to keep most of
 the Polish territory it had seized in 1939, with
 Poland taking a substantial portion of eastern
 Germany. Poland was to have free elections; in
 fact, no such elections ever occurred, and Poland
 became part of the large Soviet Eastern European
 sphere of influence tacitly agreed on by the
 conferees. The Soviet Union repeated its 
TEHRAN

 CONFERENCE promise to make war on Japan after the
 defeat of Germany in return for several territorial
 concessions, and several questions regarding the
 
UNITED NATIONS were resolved, along with a
 miscellany of other postwar territorial questions.


Yamamoto, Isoroku (1884-1943), Japanese naval
 officer who saw action in the 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
 and was commander in chief of the Japanese fleet
 1939-43. He was chief Japanese naval planner before
 and during the early portion of World War II, as
 such developing the attack on 
PEARL HARBOR. He
 was killed in the Solomon Islands, on April 18,
 1943, when American fighters shot down his
 aircraft.

Yamani, Ahmed (Sheikh Yamani; 1930- ), Saudi
 Arabian lawyer and oil minister (1962-86), who was
 an organizer of and often spokesperson for the
 
ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES
 (OPEC) and an initiator of the 
OIL EMBARGO of
 1973. During the 1970s and early 1980s Yamani
 advocated oil output restrictions to drive up
 prices but with limited success, as worldwide
 recession, non-OPEC oil-producing competition, and
 covert dumping of oil supplies on world markets by
 OPEC members caused a worldwide oil supply glut.

Yamashita, Tomoyuki (1885-1946), Japanese officer,
 who commanded southeast Asian invasion forces in
 1941. His forces took Singapore in February 1942.
 He later commanded a Japanese Manchurian army, and
 was made commander in the Philippines in 1944,
 where his troops continued to retreat before
 liberating U.S.-Philippine forces until the end of
 the war. He was executed as a war criminal in 1946.


Yangtse floods, series of floods in the rivers of
 China in the 20th century; major floods along the
 Yangtse and other rivers in 1939 caused an
 estimated 500,000 deaths.

Yarmouth Castle sinking (November 13, 1965), the
 sinking of the American cruise ship 
YARMOUTH

 CASTLE off Nassau, with a loss of 89, after a fire
 that went out of control because of faulty
 firefighting equipment aboard.

Yates v. United States (1957), a landmark U.S.
 Supreme Court decision, reversing the convictions
 of 14 Communist party leaders, sharply limiting
 federal government ability to prosecute dissenters
 under the 
SMITH ACT and reflecting changed
 national attitudes as 
MCCARTHYISM waned.

Yeager, Charles Elwood (1923- ), U.S. pilot, who
 first broke the 
SOUND BARRIER, flying his Bell
 X-1 craft faster than the speed of sound, on
 October 14, 1947. A World War II fighter pilot and
 later a test pilot, in 1953 Yeager also set a speed
 record, flying at 1,650 miles per hour, and helped
 prepare the first astronauts for the early U.S.
 space efforts.

Yeager, Jeana, U.S. pilot who, with Dick Rutan,
 made the first nonstop airplane flight around the
 world in the Voyager in 1986.

yellow fever, severe, often fatal viral disease
 most common in tropical and subtropical areas,
 especially in the Americas, as in a 1905 epidemic
 in New Orleans. Working in Havana, Cuba, in 1900,
 Walter 
REED first confirmed an earlier theory
 that yellow fever was a mosquito-borne disease.
 Acting on that information, William Crawford
 
GORGAS developed a mosquito- eradication program
 in Cuba, which he later applied in Panama so
 successfully that construction of the 
PANAMA

 CANAL (1904-14) could proceed without the terrible
 loss of life earlier experienced. South
 African-American microbiologist Max Theiler
 developed a vaccine against yellow fever in 1937,
 but mosquito eradication campaigns continued to be
 the main way of combatting this scourge.

Yellow River dikes, flood barriers intentionally
 broken by the Chinese in June 1938, during the
 second year of the 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR, in a
 successful attempt to slow the Japanese advance in
 north central China. Much of the Yellow River plain
 was flooded, causing enormous damage, but also
 stopping the Japanese 
CHENGCHOW OFFENSIVE.

Yellowstone fires (September 1988), massive U.S.
 Northwest forest fires, especially severe at
 Yellowstone National Park, that destroyed an
 estimated 3 million acres of forest, bringing sharp
 public criticism of the National Park Service
 policy of letting such fires burn themselves out
 naturally, and causing a policy review.

Yeltsin, Boris Nikolayevich (1931- ), Soviet
 engineer and Communist party official, a member of
 the presidium from 1984 and first secretary of the
 Moscow city party committee 1984-87, in that
 position functioning as mayor of Moscow. A
 
GORBACHEV supporter and leading advocate of
 democratization and decentralization, he publicly
 disagreed with Gorbachev as to the pace of change
 and was demoted to first deputy chairman of the
 State Construction Committee in 1987. In the 1989
 elections he swept Moscow with an overwhelming
 majority, emerging as a leading advocate of change,
 with massive popular support.

Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen), until the end of
 World I, part of the Ottoman Empire, then becoming
 a British-influenced Arab religious state, which
 became a republic after the military coup of 1962.
 The coup generated the 
YEMENI CIVIL WAR, which
 was followed by continued instability, and
 recurrent attempts to join the country with its
 smaller neighbor, the 
YEMEN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC

 (SOUTH YEMEN).

Yemeni Civil War (1962-70), conflict that began
 with the republican revolt and establishment of the
 Free Yemen Republic in September 1962. The monarchy
 was supported by Saudi Arabia, and the republicans
 by Egypt, which had an estimated 60,000-80,000
 troops in Yemen until the cease-fire of 1965, and
 kept substantial forces in Yemen until Egyptian
 defeat in the 
SINAI-SUEZ WAR (THIRD ARAB-ISRAELI

 WAR) of 1967. In February 1968 Southern Yemen
 entered the war on the side of the republicans, and
 Saudi Arabia once again sent support to the
 royalist forces. In April 1970 the Saudis agreed to
 the establishment of a republican government that
 included royalist representatives.

Yemen People's Republic (People's Democratic
 Republic of Yemen; South Yemen), until 1967 a
 British protectorate including the colony of
 
ADEN. After a low- level guerrilla insurgency,
 which included factional fighting within the South
 Yemen independence movement, South Yemen became an
 independent nation on November 30, 1967, becoming
 the People's Republic in 1970.

Yenan, the north China city in Shensi province that
 was the headquarters of the Chinese Communist army
 after the 
LONG MARCH of 1934-35, and until power
 was achieved in 1949. This was the "Yenan period"
 of Chinese communism; the city is now a national
 shrine.

Yezhov, Nikolai Ivanovich (1894-1939), Soviet
 Communist Party leader, who headed the NKVD
 1936-38, bearing major direct responsibility for
 the massive imprisonments and murders of the 
GREAT

 PURGE. He was himself purged in 1938 and
 disappeared in 1939, probably murdered by his
 former NKVD colleagues.

Yippies (Youth International Party), an
 anarchist-oriented 
NEW LEFT student radical group
 of the 1960s that came to world attention during
 the 
CHICAGO DEMOCRATIC NATIONAL CONVENTION of
 1968. They organized demonstrations that were met
 by the Chicago police with extraordinary brutality,
 and were televised to a world audience.

Yom Kippur War (Fourth Arab-Israeli War, October
 War; October 6-24, 1973), conflict that began on
 October 6, in that year the date of the Jewish holy
 day of Yom Kippur, with successful surprise air and
 ground attacks by Egyptian forces along the Suez
 Canal and by Syrian forces, supported by Iraqi and
 Jordanian forces, on the Golan Heights. Israeli
 forces were driven back on both fronts, suffering
 heavy losses. But the far stronger and better led
 Israelis reasserted air superiority; within a week
 they were bombing Damascus and other Syrian targets
 at will and by October 12 were threatening to take
 Damascus. On October 16 Israeli forces in
 divisional strength counterattacked across the
 canal, and by October 24, the date of the
 cease-fire, they were positioned to destroy the
 Egyptian Third Army. Until October 24, U.S. and
 Soviet involvement had been limited to large supply
 airlifts to the combatants, but direct Soviet
 intervention to save threatened Egyptian forces
 then seemed possible. This possibility generated a
 sharply cautionary American response. This major
 threat to world peace was ended by the 
UNITED

 NATIONS-sponsored agreement of October 27, 1973
 which provided for Suez and Golan Heights
 peacekeeping forces manned by the smaller nations.
 Disengagement agreements were concluded between
 Egypt and Israel in January 1974 and between Syria
 and Israel in May 1974.

York, Alvin Cullum (1887-1964), Congressional Medal
 of Honor winner for his action against a German
 machine gun battalion on October 8, 1918, near
 Chateau-Thierry, France. He became a major American
 hero of the war, and was later portrayed by Gary
 Cooper in the film Sergeant York (1941).

Yoshida, Shigeru (1878-1967), Japanese diplomat,
 who held a series of responsible positions,
 1906-39, including that of ambassador to Great
 Britain, 1936-39. He was briefly imprisoned by his
 own government (June-August 1945) for opposing the
 continuation of World War II. He was foreign
 minister 1945-46 and prime minister 1948-54, in
 that position taking Japan through the balance of
 the Allied occupation, the postwar land reform, the
 adoption of a new constitution, and establishment
 of the material and political bases for the
 economic upsurge and long period of conservative
 dominance that followed.

Young, Andrew (1932- ), U.S. Congregational
 minister, who became a leader of the 
CIVIL RIGHTS

 MOVEMENT and was closely associated with Martin
 Luther 
KING, Jr. as executive director and later
 executive vice-president of the 
SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN

 LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE (SCLC). In 1972 he became
 the first Black Congressman from Georgia since
 Reconstruction. He was U.S. ambassador to the
 
UNITED NATIONS (1977-79) and later became mayor
 of Atlanta, Georgia (1981- ).

Young, Whitney Moore, Jr. (1921-71), U.S. civil
 rights leader, a former social worker, teacher, and
 administrator who headed the Urban League 1961-71.
 In that period he focused on enhancing economic
 opportunities for Blacks and developing government
 and private antipoverty programs, as part of the
 larger 
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT.

Young Plan, a 1930 plan providing for renegotiation
 to lower levels of the German World War I
 reparations established by the Treaty of
 
VERSAILLES and the 
DAWES PLAN of 1924. The
 Young Plan, named after American lawyer Owen D.
 Young, who developed it, also set up the Bank of
 International Settlements.

Young Turks, a Turkish revolutionary organization
 that won army support, forced the Turkish
 constitutional reforms of 1908, and then came to
 power in the coup of 1913.

Younghusband Tibetan expedition (1903-1904), a
 British expedition into Tibet led by Francis
 Younghusband, British explorer, army officer, and
 diplomat, that fought its way to Lhasa against
 Tibetan opposition, and forced Tibet to accept
 British control of disputed lands along the
 Tibet-India border.

Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company v. Sawyer (1952),
 a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision, in which
 the Court invalidated president Harry 
TRUMAN's
 steel plant seizure during a national steel strike
 as an abuse of executive power.

Youth International Party, the more formal name of
 the group popularly known as the 
YIPPIES.

You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore,
 statement by Richard Milhous 
NIXON, prematurely
 telling the Washington press corps that he was
 conducting his last press conference, on November
 7, 1962.

Ypres, Battles of, three major World War I battles
 at Ypres, a Belgian town near the North Sea. At the
 first Battle of Ypres (October 20-November 24,
 1914), the British Expeditionary Force, supported
 by French forces, held their lines against heavy
 German attacks, blocking German attempts to take
 the North Sea ports. At the second Ypres battle
 (April 22-May 25, 1915), the Germans used 
POISON

 GAS (chlorine) to help them break through the
 British lines, but were thrown back by
 reinforcements. At the third Ypres battle, also
 called 
PASSCHENDAELE (July 31-November 10, 1917),
 attacking British troops suffered an estimated
 320,000 casualties and gained a total of 5 miles,
 finally taking the small village of Passchendaele.


Yuan Shih-k'ai (1859-1916), Chinese military leader
 who served under the Manchus and was a minister in
 the Manchu government; he negotiated the abdication
 of the child emperor 
HSUAN T'UNG (Henry P'u Yi)
 and the end of the dynasty with 
SUN YAT-SEN and
 the revolutionary movement in 1912. He then became
 the first president of the Republic of China,
 succeeding Sun, who had been provisional president.
 In 1913 a second revolution, led by Sun, failed to
 remove him, and Sun fled to Japan.

Yudenich, Nicolai Nikolayevich (1862-1933), Czarist
 general and commander of the White army in
 northwest Russia during the 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR;
 his forces were defeated in 1919, and he went into
 exile.

Yugoslavia (Socialist Federal Republic of
 Yugoslavia), until 1918, a region belonging partly
 to the Austro-Empire. On December 1, 1918, 
SERBIA
 and 
MONTENEGRO, both independent states, merged
 with 
CROATIA, SLOVENIA, and 
BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
 to form the kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and
 Slovenes, which in 1929 became Yugoslavia. The
 country was occupied by 
AXIS forces during World
 War II; developed a three-way war among Axis,
 
CHETNIK, and 
PARTISAN forces; and emerged on
 November 29, 1945, as a one- party Communist state
 led by 
TITO.

Yugoslavia, invasion of (April 6-17, 1941), World
 War II attack on Yugoslavia and Greece by German
 forces, starting on April 6, 1941. Greece, which
 had been winning its war against Italy since
 October 1940, fell in 17 days to the Germans.
 Yugoslavia had not been previously invaded, but in
 March 1941 had agreed to join Germany and Italy in
 the war. But a Yugoslav army revolt reversed the
 decision, triggering a quick German invasion, in
 which the Germans suffered minimal casualties and
 the Yugoslav army was routed and destroyed, with
 tens of thousands of casualties and an estimated
 250,000-300,000 prisoners taken. Belgrade fell on
 April 12, and Yugoslavia surrendered on April 17.


Yugoslav-Soviet break (1948), a break between
 
TITO, Joseph 
STALIN, and their respective
 countries on the issue of Yugoslav independence. It
 had been building since the end of World War II, as
 Tito and his associates converted their powerful
 Partisan army into an independent national army,
 and began to pursue the "Yugoslav road to
 socialism," which involved decentralization, worker
 control of enterprises, and a measure of free
 expression, all unacceptable to Stalin. In June
 1948 the break was made public, with 
COMINFORM
 expulsion of Yugoslavia. Military action did not
 follow, though war seemed imminent in the autumn of
 1949, as the Yugoslavs made it clear that they
 would fight if invaded, and Stalin was not willing
 to run the risk of a war that might ultimately
 engage the United States.

Zaharoff, Basil (Basileios Zacharias; 1849-1936),
 Turkish-French armaments dealer who represented
 several other dealers in the Balkans, Eastern
 Europe, and Russia from the early 1880s, becoming
 very rich and well connected in the process; in the
 popular press of the day he was a "mystery man." He
 became a French citizen in 1913, and was knighted
 by the British government in 1918, avowedly for
 services as an Allied intelligence agent during
 World War I.

Zahir Shah, Mohammad (1914- ), the last king of
 Afghanistan (1933-73), who succeeded to the throne
 after the assassination of his father, Nadir Shah,
 in 1933. He became a constitutional monarch in
 1963, and in 1973 he was toppled by a revolution
 led by his former prime minister and cousin, Sardar
 Mohammed 
DAUD KHAN; he then went into exile.

Zaibatsu, the large Japanese industrial
 organizations, usually run by single families, that
 dominated the Japanese economy early in the century
 and until 1945, when they were outlawed by Allied
 occupation forces. After the occupation ended,
 large industrial organizations intertwined with
 private and public financial organizations came
 back, once again dominating the economic life of
 the country.

Zaire (Republic of Zaire), until 1960, the Belgian
 Congo, a Belgian colony; it became an independent
 state on June 30, 1960, an event followed by the
 
CONGO CIVIL WAR. In 1965 
MOBUTU Sese Seko
 emerged as sole leader of the country.

Zaire Civil War, the 
CONGO CIVIL WAR, as it was
 known at the time it occurred.

Zakharov, Gennadi F., a former 
UNITED NATIONS
 employee who had been charged by the U.S.
 government as a Soviet spy in 1986, and was
 released in a swap for Nicholas 
DANILOF, whom the
 Soviets had arrested and accused of spying.

Zambia (Republic of Zambia), until 1964, 
NORTHERN

 RHODESIA, a British protectorate, becoming in 1953
 part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland,
 controlled by the white government of Southern
 Rhodesia. After a decade of Black nationalist
 protest, Northern Rhodesia gained independence and
 
COMMONWEALTH membership on October 24, 1964. Its
 first and only president was Kenneth 
KAUNDA, who
 in 1972 turned his country into a one- party state.


Zangara, Joseph (?-1933), assassin who shot at but
 missed president-elect Franklin D. 
ROOSEVELT in
 Miami, Florida, on February 15, 1933; he wounded
 Chicago mayor Anton J. Cermak, who later died.
 Zangara was subsequently executed.

ZANU, the initials of the 
ZIMBABWE AFRICAN

 NATIONAL UNION, by which it is best known.

Zanzibar (and Pemba), a former British East African
 colony that became an independent nation in 1963
 and merged with 
TANGANYIKA to form the new nation
 of 
TANZANIA on April 26, 1964.

Zapata, Emiliano (1879-1919), Mexican Indian
 peasant and agrarian reformer, who led a peasant
 revolutionary army in southern Mexico during the
 
MEXICAN REVOLUTION. He fought alongside Francisco
 
MADERO against Porfiro 
DAZ in 1910-1911 but
 soon broke with Madero on the question of land
 reform, developing his own Plan of Ayala. He and
 Francisco 
VILLA fought the armies of Venustiano
 
CARRANZA, taking Mexico City in 1914; but they
 were later forced to withdraw, Villa to the north
 and Zapata to the south, where his army
 successfully resisted all government attacks.
 Zapata was assassinated in 1919.

ZAPU, the initials of the 
ZIMBABWE AFRICAN

 PEOPLE'S UNION, by which it is best known.

Zeebrugge ferry sinking (March 9, 1987), capsizing
 of the British ferry Herald of Free Enterprise in
 the English Channel off Zeebrugge, Belgium, killing
 188 people.

Zeppelin, Ferdinand von (1838-1917), German
 general, who turned aircraft designer late in life.
 He developed a rigid airship-named, after him, the
 zeppelin, but better known as the 
DIRIGIBLE-which
 first flew in 1900.

Zhao Ziyang (Chao Tzu-yang; 1919- ), Chinese
 Communist leader, a party secretary in Guangdong
 (Canton) 1965-67 and 1972-74, with a 5-year break
 during his "purge" in the 
CULTURAL REVOLUTION. A
 protege of 
DENG XIAO-P'ING, Zhao was Chinese
 premier, 1980-87, and became general secretary of
 his party in 1987. With Deng, Zhao committed China
 to the development of new incentive-providing
 economic forms, including decentralized economic
 controls, and private ownership of land and small
 businesses. A leading liberal, he lost power to 
LI

 PENG and the conservative wing of Chinese
 communism during the crisis generated by the
 
CHINESE STUDENT DEMONSTRATIONS OF 1989 in
 Beijing.

Zhivkiv, Todor (1911- ), Bulgarian Communist
 official, a resistance fighter in World War II, who
 became secretary-general of the Bulgarian Communist
 party in 1954, then remaining in control of his
 party and government while continuing to execute
 Soviet-bloc policy. He apparently had considerable
 difficulty in coming to terms with some major
 aspects of Soviet 
GLASNOST and 
PERESTROIKA at
 the beginning of the 
GORBACHEV era but attempted
 to apply those policies to Bulgaria. He resigned
 under pressure in 1989.

Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai; 1898-1976), Chinese
 Communist leader who became first premier of the
 
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA 1949-76. He was
 imprisoned for revolutionary work in 1920 and then
 spent 4 years in France, from 1921 as a Chinese
 Communist Party organizer. From 1924 he was on the
 faculty of 
WHAMPOA MILITARY ACADEMY, and was in
 1927 military leader of the Communist forces during
 the taking of Shanghai by the 
NORTHERN EXPEDITION
 and the 
SHANGHAI MASSACRE that followed. The
 central character in Andre 
MALRAUX's novel, Man's
 Fate, set at the Shanghai massacre, was based on
 Zhou. In 1931 he joined 
MAO ZEDONG and 
ZHU DE
 in 
KIANGSI, and made the 
LONG MARCH to Yenan in
 1934. From 1935 to 1945 he was chief Communist
 Party diplomatic representative, arranging the
 release of 
CHIANG KAI-SHEK during the 
SIAN

 INCIDENT of 1936 and negotiating with 
KUOMINTANG
 and American representatives before and during
 World War II. After Communist victory in 1949 he
 became premier, and was also foreign minister until
 1958. From 1935 until his death 42 years later, he
 was the Chinese Communist movement's leading
 diplomat and spokesperson.

Zhu De (Chu Teh; 1886-1976), Chinese officer,
 founder and long-time commander of China's Red
 Army. 
ZHU was a Yunnan Military Academy graduate,
 who joined the 
COMMUNIST PARTY OF CHINA while a
 student in Germany in the 1920s. He returned to
 China and became a Nationalist army officer in
 1926, fought on the Communist side in the
 unsuccessful 
NANCHANG UPRISING of 1927, and then
 fled to the Ching-kang Mountains of western
 Kiangsi, where he was joined by 
MAO ZEDONG and
 the other survivors of the 
AUTUMN HARVEST

 UPRISINGS. From then on he headed the Communist
 armies, through the years of the 
KIANGSI SOVIET,
 during the 
LONG MARCH and the 
YENAN and
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR years that followed, and then
 through the last years of the 
CHINESE CIVIL WAR.
 He held command of the People's Liberation Army
 until 1954, remaining a senior military figure in
 China for the balance of his life, and taking no
 other major active role in Chinese affairs.

Zhukov, Georgi Konstantinovich (1896-1974), Soviet
 officer, who saw service in World War I and in the
 
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR. In 1939 forces under his
 command were successful in the 
JAPANESE-SOVIET

 BORDER WAR. He was Soviet chief of staff in 1941,
 participated in the defense of 
LENINGRAD, and
 planned the successful Soviet counteroffensive in
 Battle of 
MOSCOW. As Deputy Supreme Commander
 under Joseph 
STALIN, he was largely responsible
 for overall planning of the defense of 
STALINGRAD
 and the series of offensives that took the Red Army
 to Berlin. He personally directed the final Soviet
 attack on Berlin. During the postwar period he lost
 Stalin's favor, but held several key government
 posts after Stalin's death, finally losing all
 positions after losing a political struggle with
 Nikita 
KHRUSHCHEV in 1957. After Khrushchev's
 fall from power, Zhukov was rehabilitated and
 honored.

Zia Ul-Haq, Mohammad (1924-79), Pakistani officer,
 who was appointed army commander in chief in 1976
 and who took power in an army coup in July 1977.
 Zia imprisoned former prime minister Zulfikar Ali
 
BHUTTO, and had him executed on a murder charge
 in April 1979 despite worldwide protests. Zia
 became the military dictator of Pakistan, ruling
 under martial law until 1985 and then beginning to
 move very slowly toward restoration of some aspects
 of democracy; however, he abruptly dissolved all
 major democratic institutions and returned the
 country to military rule in May 1988. As president,
 he fostered a return to rigid, medieval Islamic
 law, closely allied Pakistan with the United
 States, built Pakistani military strength, and
 attempted to develop atomic weapons. He supplied
 and offered refuge to Afghan rebel forces and an
 estimated 3-5 million Afghan refugees during the
 1980s. He died in an airplane crash, on August 17,
 1988, and was succeeded by Benazir 
BHUTTO, the
 daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who restored
 democracy in her country.

Zimbabwe (Republic of Zimbabwe), until 1923
 
SOUTHERN RHODESIA, a British colony; it gained
 internal autonomy in 1923, with continuing white
 domination of the government. In 1953 it joined in
 the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which
 dissolved in 1963, 
NORTHERN RHODESIA gaining
 independence in 1964 as 
ZAMBIA. Southern
 Rhodesia, under attack as a racist state, declared
 itself independent of Great Britain in 1965 and a
 republic in 1969; then developed the guerrilla
 insurgency that became the 
ZIMBABWE-RHODESIA CIVIL

 WARS.

Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), Zimbabwean
 political party formed in 1963, when its founding
 members left the Zimbabwe African People's Union
 (ZAPU). In the early 1970s it moved into guerrilla
 war against the dominant white minority government
 of South Rhodesia. From 1976 ZANU was led by Robert
 
MUGABE, who led it into a Patriotic Front
 coalition with ZAPU that year. When independence
 came in 1980, ZANU became the Zimbabwean majority
 party, and Mugabe was named Zimbabwe's first prime
 minister. From then on, ZANU was the country's
 ruling party, merging with ZAPU and abolishing
 white representation guarantees in 1987, and so
 becoming the sole party in Zimbabwe.

Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), Zimbabwean
 political party led by Joshua 
NKOMO from its
 formation in the early 1960s. It became a major
 force in the Southern Rhodesia Black national
 movement, going over to guerrilla warfare in the
 early 1970s and into the Patriotic Front coalition
 with the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) in
 1976. It won a minority position in the 1980
 Zimbabwean elections, with Nkomo then joining the
 
MUGABE  government. Intermittently involved in
 guerrilla warfare against the new government during
 the early 1980s, in 1987 it was merged with ZANU,
 as Zimbabwe became a one-party state.

Zimbabwe-Rhodesia Civil Wars (1971-1984), conflicts
 that began as sporadic insurgent attacks by
 dissident Black nationalist forces operating out of
 neighboring Black African countries. In 1975-76
 they grew into a substantial guerrilla war, with
 
ZIMBABWE AFRICAN NATIONAL UNION (ZANU) and
 
ZIMBABWE AFRICAN PEOPLE'S UNION (ZAPU) forces
 attacking from their bases in Zambia and
 Mozambique, and Rhodesian forces striking back at
 those bases in what became a set of border wars. In
 1976 ZANU leader Robert 
MUGABE and ZAPU leader
 Joshua 
NKOMO joined forces in the Patriotic
 Front, though their alliance was beset by friction
 and some armed clashes. By 1979 the long civil war
 and world condemnation of an isolated Southern
 Rhodesia had combined to force the government of
 Ian 
SMITH to step down, to be replaced by the
 short-lived government of Bishop Abel 
MUZOREWA.
 ZANU and ZAPU did not not accept the legitimacy of
 the new government; nor did the American and other
 governments. This forced a different solution, the
 supervison of new elections by the British
 government, which in 1980 yielded a ZANU majority
 and the formation of the first government of the
 new nation of Zimbabwe by Robert Mugabe, with ZAPU
 and white minority representation. But the civil
 wars were not yet over; sporadic fighting between
 formerly allied ZANU and ZAPU forces developed and
 continued until 1984, when the long series of
 negotiations that led to the 1987 ZANU-ZAPU merger
 began. After 1987 Zimbabwe became a one-party
 state.

Zimmerman note (January 19, 1917), a coded message
 from German secretary of state Arthur Zimmerman to
 the German ambassador in Mexico, proposing a
 German-Mexican alliance should the United States
 come into World War I. British intelligence
 deciphered the note; its publication caused great
 anger in the United States and helped push the
 United States into the war.

Zinoviev, Grigori Yevseyevich (1882-1936), leading
 
BOLSHEVIK and collaborator with 
LENIN, who
 returned with Lenin to Russia in 1917 and was the
 first president of the 
COMMUNIST INTERNATIONAL.
 In the early 1920s Zinoviev and Lev 
KAMENEV
 joined with Joseph 
STALIN to defeat Leon
 
TROTSKY; then, in the mid-1920s, they opposed
 Stalin's takeover of the Soviet Union. For this,
 Zinoviev was expelled from the Communist party and
 lost his official positions, but later after
 recanting, he was rehabilitated. In 1935 he was
 sentenced to 10 years imprisonment for allegedly
 participating in a plot that resulted in the murder
 of Communist party leader Sergei 
KIROV. He was
 executed in 1936, a victim of the first major show
 trials of the 
GREAT PURGE. In June 1989, during
 the 
GORBACHEV era, he was posthumously
 rehabilitated.

Zionism, a movement to establish a Jewish national
 homeland in Palestine on the land once occupied by
 the Biblical land of Israel. Attempts to accomplish
 this goal began in 1882, when the Eastern European
 Lovers of Zion movement began to establish
 agricultural settlements in Palestine. The term
 itself was coined by Austrian writer Nathan
 Birnbaum. In 1897 Theodor 
HERZL organized the
 Congress of Zionist Organizations and became its
 first president; and in the years before World War
 I, Jewish settlement in Palestine increased. The
 
BALFOUR DECLARATION of 1917 indicated British
 willingness to cooperate with Zionist aims, and
 provided a focus for the following 31-year campaign
 to establish Israel. That campaign captured Western
 world support after the full extent of the 
JEWISH

 HOLOCAUST became clear, although the Arabs of
 Palestine were supported in their opposition to
 Zionist national aspirations throughout the Arab
 and Moslem worlds. The establishment of the state
 of Israel in May 1948, which was also the beginning
 of the Arab-Israeli wars, achieved the main Zionist
 goal; but some 
IRGUN ZVAI LEUMI and 
STERN GANG
 activists insisted that Israel was incomplete until
 it included all that historically had been Israel,
 including Jerusalem and the 
WEST BANK of the
 Jordan River.

Zodiac murders, the media-developed name for a
 series of unsolved murders, mostly of young women
 and girls, occurring in California and other
 western states during the late 1960s and early
 1970s. The name developed from the mode of
 mutilation involved and from several
 self-advertising letters sent to the press,
 possibly by the murderer. The letters claimed
 "credit" for 37 murders, although police estimates
 were generally much lower.

Zworykin, Vladimir Kosma (1889-1982),
 Russian-American electrical engineer and inventor;
 sometimes called the father of 
TELEVISION.
 Immigrating to the United States in 1919, he joined
 Westinghouse, where in 1923-24 he patented the two
 basic components of the modern television system,
 the iconoscope camera tube and the kinescope
 picture tube; in 1928 he also obtained a color
 television patent. Westinghouse executives were
 unimpressed with his "impractical" project, so he
 left for RCA (Radio Corporation of America), then
 headed by David 
SARNOFF, who put up the millions
 needed for Zworykin and his team to produce the
 first all-electronic television in 1932, and then
 to make television a practical reality. He
 developed many other devices in his working life,
 including an early "electric eye," electronic
 control for 
MISSILES, and devices used in
 
RADIATION detectors; while at RCA, he also
 fostered the work of others, such as James
 Hillier's work on the 
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE in
 1937.